{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7128591160","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make8020043","title":"Towards LLM-Driven Cybersecurity in Autonomous Vehicles: A Big Data-Empowered Framework with Emerging Technologies","display_name":"Towards LLM-Driven Cybersecurity in Autonomous Vehicles: A Big Data-Empowered Framework with Emerging Technologies","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-11","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7128591160","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make8020043"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make8020043","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make8020043","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make8020043","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5010990835","display_name":"Aristeidis Karras","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4632-6511"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I174878644","display_name":"University of Patras","ror":"https://ror.org/017wvtq80","country_code":"GR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I174878644"]}],"countries":["GR"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Aristeidis Karras","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Engineering and Informatics Department, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4632-6511","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Engineering and Informatics Department, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I174878644"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5019293826","display_name":"Leonidas Theodorakopoulos","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0891-6780"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I174878644","display_name":"University of Patras","ror":"https://ror.org/017wvtq80","country_code":"GR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I174878644"]}],"countries":["GR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Leonidas Theodorakopoulos","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Management Science and Technology, University of Patras, 26334 Patras, Greece"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0891-6780","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Management Science and Technology, University of Patras, 26334 Patras, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I174878644"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5012988436","display_name":"Christos Karras","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4253-7661"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I174878644","display_name":"University of Patras","ror":"https://ror.org/017wvtq80","country_code":"GR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I174878644"]}],"countries":["GR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Christos Karras","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computer Engineering and Informatics Department, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4253-7661","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computer Engineering and Informatics Department, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I174878644"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125601209","display_name":"Alexandra Theodoropoulou","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I174878644","display_name":"University of Patras","ror":"https://ror.org/017wvtq80","country_code":"GR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I174878644"]}],"countries":["GR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alexandra Theodoropoulou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Management Science and Technology, University of Patras, 26334 Patras, Greece"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6314-7795","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Management Science and Technology, University of Patras, 26334 Patras, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I174878644"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5010990835"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I174878644"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":9.8871,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9727266,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"8","issue":"2","first_page":"43","last_page":"43"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10761","display_name":"Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)","score":0.7943000197410583,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10761","display_name":"Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)","score":0.7943000197410583,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10524","display_name":"Traffic control and management","score":0.030400000512599945,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.01940000057220459,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/anomaly-detection","display_name":"Anomaly detection","score":0.651199996471405},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.6107000112533569},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intrusion-detection-system","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","score":0.5942999720573425},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adversarial-system","display_name":"Adversarial system","score":0.4212999939918518},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/critical-infrastructure","display_name":"Critical infrastructure","score":0.3416000008583069},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/probability-distribution","display_name":"Probability distribution","score":0.33079999685287476},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/graph","display_name":"Graph","score":0.32659998536109924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ethernet","display_name":"Ethernet","score":0.3183000087738037}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7257999777793884},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C739882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560506","display_name":"Anomaly detection","level":2,"score":0.651199996471405},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.6107000112533569},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C35525427","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q745881","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","level":2,"score":0.5942999720573425},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37736160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1801315","display_name":"Adversarial system","level":2,"score":0.4212999939918518},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.4034000039100647},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C29852176","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q373338","display_name":"Critical infrastructure","level":2,"score":0.3416000008583069},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.33899998664855957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149441793","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200726","display_name":"Probability distribution","level":2,"score":0.33079999685287476},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132525143","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141488","display_name":"Graph","level":2,"score":0.32659998536109924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C172173386","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79984","display_name":"Ethernet","level":2,"score":0.3183000087738037},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C20136886","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q749647","display_name":"Interoperability","level":2,"score":0.3091000020503998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781045450","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254569","display_name":"Backdoor","level":2,"score":0.2930999994277954},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2984842247","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep neural networks","level":3,"score":0.2849000096321106},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184337299","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1437428","display_name":"Semantics (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.2786000072956085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.2669000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C541664917","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14001","display_name":"Malware","level":2,"score":0.26669999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75684735","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858810","display_name":"Big data","level":2,"score":0.2662000060081482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.2639000117778778},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.263700008392334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77714075","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5452017","display_name":"Firewall (physics)","level":5,"score":0.2630000114440918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110251889","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1569697","display_name":"Model checking","level":2,"score":0.2606000006198883}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/make8020043","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make8020043","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:e7a9ae44ca884b3894f7cf0ebf6c7265","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/e7a9ae44ca884b3894f7cf0ebf6c7265","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction, Vol 8, Iss 2, p 43 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make8020043","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make8020043","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.5725647807121277,"display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":26,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1981904416","https://openalex.org/W2051896275","https://openalex.org/W2116341502","https://openalex.org/W2164330572","https://openalex.org/W2295598076","https://openalex.org/W2907492528","https://openalex.org/W2959120033","https://openalex.org/W3092232275","https://openalex.org/W3130982961","https://openalex.org/W4206471589","https://openalex.org/W4213449569","https://openalex.org/W4221052500","https://openalex.org/W4308605894","https://openalex.org/W4361793541","https://openalex.org/W4362519986","https://openalex.org/W4378976213","https://openalex.org/W4385656664","https://openalex.org/W4391097714","https://openalex.org/W4399675630","https://openalex.org/W4405936101","https://openalex.org/W4408078267","https://openalex.org/W4408793708","https://openalex.org/W4409636111","https://openalex.org/W4410284891","https://openalex.org/W4411798915","https://openalex.org/W4415872256"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Modern":[0],"Autonomous":[1],"Vehicles":[2],"generate":[3],"large":[4],"volumes":[5],"of":[6,34],"heterogeneous":[7,127],"in-vehicle":[8],"data,":[9],"making":[10],"cybersecurity":[11],"a":[12,52],"critical":[13],"challenge":[14],"as":[15,144],"adversarial":[16],"attacks":[17,110],"become":[18],"increasingly":[19],"adaptive,":[20],"stealthy,":[21],"and":[22,44,78,102,114,133,142],"multi-protocol.":[23],"Traditional":[24],"intrusion":[25,54],"detection":[26,55,69],"systems":[27],"often":[28],"fail":[29],"under":[30],"these":[31],"conditions":[32],"because":[33],"their":[35],"limited":[36],"contextual":[37],"understanding,":[38],"poor":[39],"robustness":[40],"to":[41,107],"distribution":[42],"shifts,":[43],"insufficient":[45],"regulatory":[46],"transparency.":[47],"This":[48],"study":[49],"introduces":[50],"LLM-Guardian,":[51],"hierarchical":[53],"framework":[56,121],"with":[57,66],"decision-making":[58],"mechanisms":[59],"that":[60],"integrates":[61],"Large":[62],"Language":[63],"Models":[64],"(LLMs)":[65],"classical":[67],"statistical":[68],"theory,":[70],"optimal":[71],"transport":[72],"drift":[73],"analysis,":[74],"graph":[75],"neural":[76],"networks,":[77],"formal":[79],"uncertainty":[80],"quantification.":[81],"LLM-Guardian":[82],"uses":[83],"semantic":[84],"anomaly":[85],"scoring,":[86],"conformal":[87],"prediction":[88],"for":[89,99,146],"distribution-free":[90],"confidence":[91],"calibration,":[92],"adaptive":[93],"cumulative":[94],"sum":[95],"(CUSUM)":[96],"sequential":[97],"testing":[98],"low-latency":[100],"detection,":[101],"topology-aware":[103],"GNN":[104],"reasoning":[105],"designed":[106],"identify":[108],"coordinated":[109],"across":[111],"CAN,":[112],"Ethernet,":[113],"V2X":[115,134],"interfaces.":[116],"In":[117],"this":[118],"work,":[119],"the":[120,131,139],"is":[122],"empirically":[123],"evaluated":[124],"on":[125],"four":[126],"CAN-bus":[128],"datasets,":[129],"while":[130],"Ethernet":[132],"components":[135],"are":[136],"instantiated":[137],"at":[138],"architectural":[140],"level":[141],"left":[143],"directions":[145],"future":[147],"multi-protocol":[148],"experimentation.":[149]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-07-09T07:52:08.696243","created_date":"2026-02-11T00:00:00"}