{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414352128","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7030103","title":"Leveraging LLMs for Automated Extraction and Structuring of Educational Concepts and Relationships","display_name":"Leveraging LLMs for Automated Extraction and Structuring of Educational Concepts and Relationships","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-09-19","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414352128","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7030103"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make7030103","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7030103","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/3/103/pdf?version=1758280021","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/3/103/pdf?version=1758280021","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5112718304","display_name":"Tong Qing Yang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5555-3306"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135598925","display_name":"Kyushu University","ror":"https://ror.org/00p4k0j84","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}],"countries":["JP"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tianyuan Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5555-3306","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108849434","display_name":"Baofeng Ren","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135598925","display_name":"Kyushu University","ror":"https://ror.org/00p4k0j84","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}],"countries":["JP"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Baofeng Ren","raw_affiliation_strings":["Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5012786116","display_name":"Chenghao Gu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6699-9388"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135598925","display_name":"Kyushu University","ror":"https://ror.org/00p4k0j84","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}],"countries":["JP"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chenghao Gu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6699-9388","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5086222589","display_name":"Tianjia He","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9840-5676"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135598925","display_name":"Kyushu University","ror":"https://ror.org/00p4k0j84","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}],"countries":["JP"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tianjia He","raw_affiliation_strings":["Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5059443278","display_name":"Boxuan Ma","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1566-880X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135598925","display_name":"Kyushu University","ror":"https://ror.org/00p4k0j84","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}],"countries":["JP"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Boxuan Ma","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1566-880X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071736649","display_name":"Shin\u2019ichi Konomi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5831-2152"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135598925","display_name":"Kyushu University","ror":"https://ror.org/00p4k0j84","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}],"countries":["JP"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Shin\u2019ichi Konomi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5831-2152","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5071736649"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135598925"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":6.8367,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.96665587,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":91,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"7","issue":"3","first_page":"103","last_page":"103"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.9185000061988831,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.9185000061988831,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14025","display_name":"Educational Technology and Assessment","score":0.9153000116348267,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/structuring","display_name":"Structuring","score":0.6495000123977661},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/context","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","score":0.6478000283241272},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.6189000010490417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identification","display_name":"Identification (biology)","score":0.5945000052452087},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quality","display_name":"Quality (philosophy)","score":0.5370000004768372},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/subject-matter-expert","display_name":"Subject-matter expert","score":0.4875999987125397},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/domain","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","score":0.4867999851703644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reliability","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","score":0.48159998655319214},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.48010000586509705}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7548999786376953},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775945657","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q381442","display_name":"Structuring","level":2,"score":0.6495000123977661},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.6478000283241272},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.6189000010490417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.5945000052452087},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779530757","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1207505","display_name":"Quality (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.5370000004768372},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105002631","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4833645","display_name":"Subject-matter expert","level":3,"score":0.4875999987125397},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36503486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11235244","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","level":2,"score":0.4867999851703644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.48159998655319214},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.48010000586509705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.44339999556541443},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4214000105857849},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C25343380","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q277521","display_name":"Relation (database)","level":2,"score":0.41510000824928284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207390915","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1230525","display_name":"Divergence (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.4065000116825104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175154964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380077","display_name":"Task analysis","level":3,"score":0.3391999900341034},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778334786","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1586270","display_name":"Variation (astronomy)","level":2,"score":0.30649998784065247},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58642233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8269924","display_name":"Taxonomy (biology)","level":2,"score":0.299699991941452},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.29789999127388},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C539667460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2414942","display_name":"Management science","level":1,"score":0.2937999963760376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204323151","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905424","display_name":"Range (aeronautics)","level":2,"score":0.2892000079154968},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.2883000075817108},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.2872999906539917},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207685749","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2088941","display_name":"Domain knowledge","level":2,"score":0.2851000130176544},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165696696","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11287","display_name":"Exploit","level":2,"score":0.2786000072956085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56739046","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192060","display_name":"Knowledge management","level":1,"score":0.27059999108314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777877512","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1116097","display_name":"Common ground","level":2,"score":0.26820001006126404},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C168167062","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1117970","display_name":"Component (thermodynamics)","level":2,"score":0.26429998874664307},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C183322885","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17007702","display_name":"Context model","level":3,"score":0.2637999951839447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777212361","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5127848","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.2635999917984009}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/make7030103","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7030103","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/3/103/pdf?version=1758280021","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:80b5a3b914164e1bb7a9433da544838a","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/80b5a3b914164e1bb7a9433da544838a","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction, Vol 7, Iss 3, p 103 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make7030103","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7030103","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/3/103/pdf?version=1758280021","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1884003075","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"JPMJSP2136","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334764","funder_display_name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2407310561","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"JP24K20903","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334764","funder_display_name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6936044513","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"JP20H00622","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334764","funder_display_name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334764","display_name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","ror":"https://ror.org/00hhkn466"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4414352128.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4414352128.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":19,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1978394996","https://openalex.org/W2052153632","https://openalex.org/W2129713874","https://openalex.org/W2164777277","https://openalex.org/W2250362537","https://openalex.org/W2900579434","https://openalex.org/W2996728527","https://openalex.org/W3173956212","https://openalex.org/W4225336185","https://openalex.org/W4324007137","https://openalex.org/W4385569771","https://openalex.org/W4388108480","https://openalex.org/W4388955706","https://openalex.org/W4393159829","https://openalex.org/W4400210641","https://openalex.org/W4401834466","https://openalex.org/W4403582416","https://openalex.org/W4404120854","https://openalex.org/W4406621500"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Students":[0],"must":[1],"navigate":[2],"large":[3,83],"catalogs":[4],"of":[5,70,103,189,201,259],"courses":[6,64],"and":[7,23,32,38,46,95,110,122,135,159,176,178,193,199,205,222,246,269],"make":[8],"appropriate":[9],"enrollment":[10],"decisions":[11],"in":[12,82,105],"many":[13],"online":[14],"learning":[15],"environments.":[16],"In":[17],"this":[18],"context,":[19],"identifying":[20,37],"key":[21],"concepts":[22,40,62,109,204,226],"their":[24,111,206],"relationships":[25],"is":[26,248],"essential":[27],"for":[28,91,264],"understanding":[29],"course":[30,34,72,108],"content":[31,267],"informing":[33],"recommendations.":[35],"However,":[36],"extracting":[39],"can":[41],"be":[42,53],"an":[43],"extremely":[44],"labor-intensive":[45],"time-consuming":[47],"task":[48],"when":[49],"it":[50],"has":[51],"to":[52,59,76,152,250],"done":[54],"manually.":[55],"Traditional":[56],"NLP-based":[57],"methods":[58],"extract":[60],"relevant":[61],"from":[63,146,235],"heavily":[65],"rely":[66],"on":[67,217],"resource-intensive":[68],"preparation":[69],"detailed":[71],"materials,":[73],"thereby":[74],"failing":[75],"minimize":[77],"labor.":[78],"As":[79],"recent":[80],"advances":[81],"language":[84],"models":[85],"(LLMs)":[86],"offer":[87],"a":[88,186,262],"promising":[89],"alternative":[90],"automating":[92],"concept":[93,131,133],"identification":[94],"relationship":[96],"inference,":[97],"we":[98,114],"thoroughly":[99],"investigate":[100],"the":[101,197,202,214,236,257],"potential":[102],"LLMs":[104,260],"automatically":[106],"generating":[107],"relations.":[112],"Specifically,":[113],"systematically":[115,140,162],"evaluate":[116],"three":[117,125],"LLM":[118,240],"variants":[119],"(GPT-3.5,":[120],"GPT-4o-mini,":[121],"GPT-4o)":[123],"across":[124],"distinct":[126],"educational":[127,266],"tasks,":[128],"which":[129],"are":[130,228],"generation,":[132],"extraction,":[134],"relation":[136],"identification,":[137],"using":[138,170],"six":[139],"designed":[141],"prompt":[142,191,251],"configurations":[143],"that":[144,211,227],"range":[145],"minimal":[147],"context":[148,154],"(course":[149,155],"title":[150],"only)":[151],"rich":[153],"description,":[156],"seed":[157],"concepts,":[158],"subtitles).":[160],"We":[161],"assess":[163],"model":[164,194],"performance":[165,247],"through":[166],"extensive":[167],"automated":[168],"experiments":[169,255],"standard":[171],"metrics":[172],"(Precision,":[173],"Recall,":[174],"F1,":[175],"Accuracy)":[177],"human":[179],"evaluation":[180],"by":[181],"four":[182],"domain":[183],"experts,":[184],"providing":[185],"comprehensive":[187],"analysis":[188],"how":[190],"design":[192],"choice":[195],"influence":[196],"quality":[198],"reliability":[200],"generated":[203],"interrelations.":[207],"Our":[208],"results":[209],"show":[210],"GPT-3.5":[212],"achieves":[213],"highest":[215],"scores":[216],"quantitative":[218],"metrics,":[219],"whereas":[220],"GPT-4o":[221],"GPT-4o-mini":[223],"often":[224],"generate":[225],"more":[229],"educationally":[230],"meaningful":[231],"despite":[232],"lexical":[233],"divergence":[234],"ground":[237],"truth.":[238],"Nevertheless,":[239],"outputs":[241],"still":[242],"require":[243],"expert":[244],"revision,":[245],"sensitive":[249],"complexity.":[252],"Overall,":[253],"our":[254],"demonstrate":[256],"viability":[258],"as":[261],"tool":[263],"supporting":[265],"selection":[268],"delivery.":[270]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-15T08:34:33.830935","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}