{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4413008321","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7030079","title":"Machine Learning-Based Vulnerability Detection in Rust Code Using LLVM IR and Transformer Model","display_name":"Machine Learning-Based Vulnerability Detection in Rust Code Using LLVM IR and Transformer Model","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-08-06","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4413008321","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7030079"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make7030079","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7030079","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/3/79/pdf?version=1754491466","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/3/79/pdf?version=1754491466","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5030733829","display_name":"Young Lee","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3589-3120"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1335518801","display_name":"Texas A&M University \u2013 San Antonio","ror":"https://ror.org/0084njv03","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Young Lee","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computational, Engineering, and Mathematical Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, One University Way, San Antonio, TX 78224, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computational, Engineering, and Mathematical Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, One University Way, San Antonio, TX 78224, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5013663995","display_name":"Syeda Jannatul Boshra","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1335518801","display_name":"Texas A&M University \u2013 San Antonio","ror":"https://ror.org/0084njv03","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Syeda Jannatul Boshra","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computational, Engineering, and Mathematical Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, One University Way, San Antonio, TX 78224, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computational, Engineering, and Mathematical Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, One University Way, San Antonio, TX 78224, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005953559","display_name":"Jeong Yang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3819-3544"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1335518801","display_name":"Texas A&M University \u2013 San Antonio","ror":"https://ror.org/0084njv03","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jeong Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computational, Engineering, and Mathematical Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, One University Way, San Antonio, TX 78224, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computational, Engineering, and Mathematical Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, One University Way, San Antonio, TX 78224, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5019572993","display_name":"Zechun Cao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4542-7791"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1335518801","display_name":"Texas A&M University \u2013 San Antonio","ror":"https://ror.org/0084njv03","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zechun Cao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computational, Engineering, and Mathematical Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, One University Way, San Antonio, TX 78224, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computational, Engineering, and Mathematical Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, One University Way, San Antonio, TX 78224, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5070521525","display_name":"Gongbo Liang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6700-6664"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1335518801","display_name":"Texas A&M University \u2013 San Antonio","ror":"https://ror.org/0084njv03","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gongbo Liang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computational, Engineering, and Mathematical Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, One University Way, San Antonio, TX 78224, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computational, Engineering, and Mathematical Sciences, Texas A&M University-San Antonio, One University Way, San Antonio, TX 78224, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5030733829"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1335518801"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":3.4822,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.93432268,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"7","issue":"3","first_page":"79","last_page":"79"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.9983999729156494,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.9983999729156494,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12423","display_name":"Software Reliability and Analysis Research","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12479","display_name":"Web Application Security Vulnerabilities","score":0.9958000183105469,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6200484037399292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transformer","display_name":"Transformer","score":0.5022330284118652},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rust","display_name":"Rust (programming language)","score":0.4193437397480011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.2210388481616974},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.18459346890449524},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/electrical-engineering","display_name":"Electrical engineering","score":0.10305532813072205}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6200484037399292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66322947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11658","display_name":"Transformer","level":3,"score":0.5022330284118652},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C197781089","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q575650","display_name":"Rust (programming language)","level":2,"score":0.4193437397480011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.2210388481616974},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.18459346890449524},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119599485","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43035","display_name":"Electrical engineering","level":1,"score":0.10305532813072205},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165801399","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25428","display_name":"Voltage","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/make7030079","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7030079","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/3/79/pdf?version=1754491466","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:4b1b10b4274c46e79a185ff59cfcdb2e","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/4b1b10b4274c46e79a185ff59cfcdb2e","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction, Vol 7, Iss 3, p 79 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make7030079","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7030079","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/3/79/pdf?version=1754491466","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7651344967","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2334243","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G848032724","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Science","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4413008321.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4413008321.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":30,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2153185479","https://openalex.org/W2295598076","https://openalex.org/W2779850521","https://openalex.org/W2781491433","https://openalex.org/W2798476254","https://openalex.org/W2885030880","https://openalex.org/W3034030180","https://openalex.org/W3101228802","https://openalex.org/W3131820478","https://openalex.org/W3139187675","https://openalex.org/W3194104197","https://openalex.org/W3202751128","https://openalex.org/W3206881395","https://openalex.org/W4223509913","https://openalex.org/W4248437024","https://openalex.org/W4284670340","https://openalex.org/W4285490489","https://openalex.org/W4312690534","https://openalex.org/W4361792201","https://openalex.org/W4386302393","https://openalex.org/W4388826738","https://openalex.org/W4396503911","https://openalex.org/W4399591496","https://openalex.org/W4400647844","https://openalex.org/W4402264467","https://openalex.org/W4403647337","https://openalex.org/W4411233007","https://openalex.org/W6747263394","https://openalex.org/W6784606166","https://openalex.org/W6856694880"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391375266","https://openalex.org/W2899084033","https://openalex.org/W2748952813","https://openalex.org/W2390279801","https://openalex.org/W4391913857","https://openalex.org/W2358668433","https://openalex.org/W4396701345","https://openalex.org/W2376932109","https://openalex.org/W2001405890","https://openalex.org/W4396696052"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Rust\u2019s":[0,19],"growing":[1],"popularity":[2],"in":[3,10,57,287],"high-integrity":[4],"systems":[5],"requires":[6],"automated":[7,39],"vulnerability":[8],"detection":[9,91],"order":[11],"to":[12,53,119,177,190,280],"maintain":[13],"its":[14,62],"strong":[15,249],"safety":[16],"guarantees.":[17],"Although":[18],"ownership":[20],"model":[21,118,149],"and":[22,41,96,99,165,172,180,186,193,211,269],"compile-time":[23],"checks":[24],"prevent":[25],"many":[26],"errors,":[27],"sometimes":[28],"unexpected":[29],"bugs":[30],"may":[31],"occasionally":[32],"pass":[33],"analysis,":[34],"underlining":[35],"the":[36,70,87,257,275,288],"necessity":[37],"for":[38,208,213],"safe":[40,209],"unsafe":[42],"code":[43,59,122,143,162,168,210],"detection.":[44],"This":[45,74],"paper":[46],"presents":[47],"Rust-IR-BERT,":[48],"a":[49,107,114,129,153,204,234,260],"machine":[50],"learning":[51],"approach":[52,75],"detect":[54],"security":[55],"vulnerabilities":[56,282],"Rust":[58,161,167,241],"by":[60,78,92,128],"analyzing":[61],"compiled":[63,176],"LLVM":[64,80,178,271],"intermediate":[65],"representation":[66,85],"(IR)":[67],"instead":[68],"of":[69,86,137,157,201,206,259],"raw":[71],"source":[72],"code.":[73,215],"offers":[76],"novelty":[77],"employing":[79],"IR\u2019s":[81],"language-neutral,":[82],"semantically":[83],"rich":[84],"program,":[88],"facilitating":[89],"robust":[90],"capturing":[93],"core":[94],"data":[95],"control-flow":[97],"semantics":[98,123],"reducing":[100],"language-specific":[101],"syntactic":[102],"noise.":[103],"Our":[104],"method":[105],"leverages":[106],"graph-based":[108],"transformer":[109,115],"model,":[110],"GraphCodeBERT,":[111],"which":[112],"is":[113,135],"architecture":[116],"pretrained":[117],"encode":[120],"structural":[121],"via":[124],"data-flow":[125],"information,":[126],"followed":[127],"gradient":[130],"boosting":[131],"classifier,":[132],"CatBoost,":[133],"that":[134,266],"capable":[136],"handling":[138],"complex":[139],"feature":[140],"interactions\u2014to":[141],"classify":[142],"as":[144,226],"vulnerable":[145,214],"or":[146,263],"safe.":[147],"The":[148],"was":[150],"evaluated":[151],"using":[152],"carefully":[154],"curated":[155],"dataset":[156,236],"over":[158,238],"2300":[159,239],"real-world":[160,240],"samples":[163,242],"(vulnerable":[164],"non-vulnerable":[166],"snippets)":[169],"from":[170,243],"RustSec":[171],"OSV":[173],"advisory":[174],"databases,":[175],"IR":[179,272],"labeled":[181],"with":[182,203],"corresponding":[183],"Common":[184],"Vulnerabilities":[185],"Exposures":[187],"(CVEs)":[188],"identifiers":[189],"ensure":[191],"comprehensive":[192],"realistic":[194],"coverage.":[195],"Rust-IR-BERT":[196,246],"achieved":[197],"an":[198,284],"overall":[199],"accuracy":[200],"98.11%,":[202],"recall":[205],"99.31%":[207],"93.67%":[212],"Despite":[216],"these":[217],"promising":[218],"results,":[219],"this":[220],"study":[221],"acknowledges":[222],"potential":[223],"limitations":[224],"such":[225],"focusing":[227],"primarily":[228],"on":[229,233],"known":[230],"CVEs.":[231],"Built":[232],"representative":[235],"spanning":[237],"diverse":[244],"crates,":[245],"delivers":[247],"consistently":[248],"performance.":[250],"Looking":[251],"ahead,":[252],"practical":[253],"deployment":[254],"could":[255],"take":[256],"form":[258],"Cargo":[261],"plugin":[262],"pre-commit":[264],"hook":[265],"automatically":[267],"generates":[268],"scans":[270],"artifacts":[273],"during":[274],"development":[276,289],"cycle,":[277],"enabling":[278],"developers":[279],"catch":[281],"at":[283],"early":[285],"stage":[286],"cycle.":[290]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-03-15T09:29:46.208133","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
