{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4411092332","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7020051","title":"Machine Learning Models to Predict Individual Cognitive Load in Collaborative Learning: Combining fNIRS and Eye-Tracking Data","display_name":"Machine Learning Models to Predict Individual Cognitive Load in Collaborative Learning: Combining fNIRS and Eye-Tracking Data","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-06-06","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4411092332","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7020051"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make7020051","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7020051","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/2/51/pdf?version=1749205902","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/2/51/pdf?version=1749205902","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100668218","display_name":"Wenli Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3196-3400"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wenli Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3196-3400","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Zirou Lin","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I187400657","display_name":"South China Normal University","ror":"https://ror.org/01kq0pv72","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I187400657"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Zirou Lin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Artificial Intelligence in Education, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Artificial Intelligence in Education, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I187400657"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5099074394","display_name":"Lishan Zheng","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lishan Zheng","raw_affiliation_strings":["National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5111224934","display_name":"Mei-Yee Mavis Ho","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8818-2440"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mei-Yee Mavis Ho","raw_affiliation_strings":["National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8818-2440","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5067085341","display_name":"Farhan Ali","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6773-893X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Farhan Ali","raw_affiliation_strings":["National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6773-893X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060690599","display_name":"Wei\u2010Peng Teo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3929-9778"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I172675005","display_name":"Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02e7b5302","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wei Peng Teo","raw_affiliation_strings":["National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3929-9778","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I172675005"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I187400657"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":4.8776,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.94514231,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":91,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"7","issue":"2","first_page":"51","last_page":"51"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11516","display_name":"Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes","score":0.9976000189781189,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11516","display_name":"Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes","score":0.9976000189781189,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13083","display_name":"Advanced Text Analysis Techniques","score":0.9735999703407288,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.9710999727249146,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/eye-tracking","display_name":"Eye tracking","score":0.7231781482696533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6521981358528137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tracking","display_name":"Tracking (education)","score":0.5568208694458008},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.5527651309967041},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-load","display_name":"Cognitive load","score":0.5459704399108887},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5379617214202881},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognition","display_name":"Cognition","score":0.4891074299812317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human\u2013computer-interaction","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","score":0.33114954829216003},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.2462916374206543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/neuroscience","display_name":"Neuroscience","score":0.1396089792251587}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56461940","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q970687","display_name":"Eye tracking","level":2,"score":0.7231781482696533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6521981358528137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775936607","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466845","display_name":"Tracking (education)","level":2,"score":0.5568208694458008},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5527651309967041},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C61641136","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1107019","display_name":"Cognitive load","level":3,"score":0.5459704399108887},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5379617214202881},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.4891074299812317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.33114954829216003},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.2462916374206543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169760540","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207011","display_name":"Neuroscience","level":1,"score":0.1396089792251587},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19417346","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7922","display_name":"Pedagogy","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/make7020051","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7020051","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/2/51/pdf?version=1749205902","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:9bf61f65b5624826924195908f1d4576","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/9bf61f65b5624826924195908f1d4576","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction, Vol 7, Iss 2, p 51 (2025)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:figshare.com:article/29412119","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196282","display_name":"Figshare","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210132348","host_organization_name":"Figshare (United Kingdom)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132348"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Journal contribution"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make7020051","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make7020051","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/7/2/51/pdf?version=1749205902","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2457280081","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"IRB-2021-210","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320336813","funder_display_name":"National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4412296677","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"RS 1/22 CWL","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320336813","funder_display_name":"National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320336813","display_name":"National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/02fhgbp51"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4411092332.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4411092332.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":52,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1500829624","https://openalex.org/W1730072672","https://openalex.org/W1967374003","https://openalex.org/W1993729533","https://openalex.org/W1996986259","https://openalex.org/W2023292169","https://openalex.org/W2027078803","https://openalex.org/W2032406331","https://openalex.org/W2046036800","https://openalex.org/W2063578082","https://openalex.org/W2086679356","https://openalex.org/W2096036274","https://openalex.org/W2130736456","https://openalex.org/W2131057562","https://openalex.org/W2157289187","https://openalex.org/W2158559484","https://openalex.org/W2165045980","https://openalex.org/W2166687274","https://openalex.org/W2241967620","https://openalex.org/W2270235255","https://openalex.org/W2554619676","https://openalex.org/W2556396084","https://openalex.org/W2582225178","https://openalex.org/W2598377908","https://openalex.org/W2767740804","https://openalex.org/W2795358869","https://openalex.org/W2890656423","https://openalex.org/W2913144876","https://openalex.org/W2943005003","https://openalex.org/W2953360276","https://openalex.org/W2975151273","https://openalex.org/W3004648111","https://openalex.org/W3020063080","https://openalex.org/W3041591321","https://openalex.org/W3044045419","https://openalex.org/W3101396735","https://openalex.org/W3126635286","https://openalex.org/W3137529719","https://openalex.org/W3197480465","https://openalex.org/W3199395343","https://openalex.org/W4220911495","https://openalex.org/W4224289546","https://openalex.org/W4225149680","https://openalex.org/W4306369272","https://openalex.org/W4310244180","https://openalex.org/W4379051729","https://openalex.org/W4382403079","https://openalex.org/W4390232090","https://openalex.org/W4401352390","https://openalex.org/W4401477469","https://openalex.org/W4401695731","https://openalex.org/W4402215983"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2084086966","https://openalex.org/W3188425112","https://openalex.org/W2037482284","https://openalex.org/W4380629719","https://openalex.org/W2023861399","https://openalex.org/W2730915376","https://openalex.org/W2087399092","https://openalex.org/W2793453777","https://openalex.org/W2183783065","https://openalex.org/W4394591906"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Effectively":[0],"leveraging":[1],"cognitive":[2,21,66,95,171,179],"load":[3,22,67,180],"predictions":[4],"helps":[5],"optimize":[6],"collaborative":[7,24,42,53,185],"learning":[8,25,61,89,186],"design":[9],"and":[10,34,75,115,139,160,182,188],"implementation.":[11],"This":[12],"study":[13],"explored":[14],"the":[15,83,98,103,111,123,131,140,166],"feasibility":[16],"of":[17,29,39,113,149,169],"predicting":[18],"individual":[19,94],"learners\u2019":[20,170],"during":[23],"using":[26,58],"a":[27],"combination":[28],"functional":[30],"near-infrared":[31],"spectroscopy":[32],"(fNIRS)":[33],"eye-tracking":[35,76,116],"data.":[36],"A":[37],"total":[38],"188":[40],"valid":[41],"events":[43],"collected":[44],"from":[45,72],"78":[46],"graduate":[47],"students":[48],"who":[49],"engaged":[50],"in":[51],"three":[52],"ideation":[54],"tasks":[55],"were":[56,78,164],"analyzed":[57],"various":[59],"machine":[60,88],"algorithms":[62],"applied":[63],"to":[64],"classify":[65],"levels.":[68],"Nine":[69],"features,":[70],"derived":[71],"both":[73],"fNIRS":[74,114],"data,":[77],"used":[79],"as":[80],"input":[81],"for":[82,177],"models.":[84],"Results":[85],"demonstrated":[86],"that":[87,153],"models":[90],"could":[91],"accurately":[92],"predict":[93],"load,":[96],"with":[97,122],"Random":[99],"Forest":[100],"model":[101,125,133,142],"achieving":[102,126],"highest":[104],"performance":[105],"(F1":[106,134,143],"score":[107,129],"=":[108,135,144],"0.84).":[109],"Furthermore,":[110],"integration":[112],"data":[117],"significantly":[118],"enhanced":[119],"predictive":[120],"performance,":[121],"multimodal":[124],"an":[127],"F1":[128],"0.87\u2014outperforming":[130],"eye-tracking-only":[132],"0.79)":[136],"by":[137,146],"8%":[138],"fNIRS-only":[141],"0.68)":[145],"19%.":[147],"Analysis":[148],"feature":[150],"importance":[151],"revealed":[152],"\u201cTotal":[154],"Fixation":[155],"Duration\u201d,":[156],"\u201cAverage":[157],"Inter-Fixation":[158],"Degree\u201d,":[159],"prefrontal":[161],"cortex":[162],"activity":[163],"among":[165],"strongest":[167],"predictors":[168],"load.":[172],"These":[173],"findings":[174],"have":[175],"implications":[176],"understanding":[178],"dynamics":[181],"designing":[183],"effective":[184],"environments":[187],"human\u2013computer":[189],"interfaces.":[190]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
