{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4403646833","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make6040116","title":"Systematic Analysis of Retrieval-Augmented Generation-Based LLMs for Medical Chatbot Applications","display_name":"Systematic Analysis of Retrieval-Augmented Generation-Based LLMs for Medical Chatbot Applications","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-10-18","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4403646833","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make6040116"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make6040116","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make6040116","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/6/4/116/pdf?version=1729764084","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/6/4/116/pdf?version=1729764084","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5114360948","display_name":"Arunabh Bora","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I51532219","display_name":"University of Lincoln","ror":"https://ror.org/03yeq9x20","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I51532219"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Arunabh Bora","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 7TS, Lincolnshire, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-0662-3323","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 7TS, Lincolnshire, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I51532219"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5036357777","display_name":"Heriberto Cuay\u00e1huitl","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1937-9837"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I51532219","display_name":"University of Lincoln","ror":"https://ror.org/03yeq9x20","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I51532219"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Heriberto Cuay\u00e1huitl","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 7TS, Lincolnshire, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1937-9837","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 7TS, Lincolnshire, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I51532219"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5036357777"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I51532219"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":4.976,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":45,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95713411,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"6","issue":"4","first_page":"2355","last_page":"2374"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.9952999949455261,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.9952999949455261,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12128","display_name":"AI in Service Interactions","score":0.9908000230789185,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9861000180244446,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/chatbot","display_name":"Chatbot","score":0.7735065221786499},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-retrieval","display_name":"Information retrieval","score":0.48644280433654785},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.46891459822654724},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-science","display_name":"Data science","score":0.39860305190086365},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.3589054048061371},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/world-wide-web","display_name":"World Wide Web","score":0.3480491638183594}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779041454","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q870780","display_name":"Chatbot","level":2,"score":0.7735065221786499},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C23123220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816826","display_name":"Information retrieval","level":1,"score":0.48644280433654785},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.46891459822654724},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.39860305190086365},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.3589054048061371},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136764020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466","display_name":"World Wide Web","level":1,"score":0.3480491638183594}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/make6040116","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make6040116","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/6/4/116/pdf?version=1729764084","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:1eea6f80b8e546bb90680167ffde2fcb","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/1eea6f80b8e546bb90680167ffde2fcb","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction, Vol 6, Iss 4, Pp 2355-2374 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make6040116","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make6040116","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/6/4/116/pdf?version=1729764084","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4403646833.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4403646833.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":23,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2101105183","https://openalex.org/W2123301721","https://openalex.org/W2908201961","https://openalex.org/W2913352150","https://openalex.org/W2970482702","https://openalex.org/W2970641574","https://openalex.org/W3035078899","https://openalex.org/W3046375318","https://openalex.org/W3099369213","https://openalex.org/W3137147200","https://openalex.org/W3186209406","https://openalex.org/W4384071683","https://openalex.org/W4385573970","https://openalex.org/W4388594005","https://openalex.org/W4390751384","https://openalex.org/W4392359953","https://openalex.org/W4394890393","https://openalex.org/W4398160786","https://openalex.org/W4399740794","https://openalex.org/W6682631176","https://openalex.org/W6739901393","https://openalex.org/W6781031682","https://openalex.org/W6850503672"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2748952813","https://openalex.org/W4383501580","https://openalex.org/W4214931137","https://openalex.org/W4387007686","https://openalex.org/W4313813117","https://openalex.org/W4382052417","https://openalex.org/W3192088754","https://openalex.org/W3084631705","https://openalex.org/W3176146353","https://openalex.org/W4293646425"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Artificial":[0],"Intelligence":[1],"(AI)":[2],"has":[3],"the":[4,8,24,97,145],"potential":[5],"to":[6,41,50],"revolutionise":[7],"medical":[9,29,42,67,98,146],"and":[10,14,33,74,77,92,101,109,129,135,151,158],"healthcare":[11,25],"sectors.":[12],"AI":[13,30],"related":[15],"technologies":[16],"could":[17],"significantly":[18],"address":[19],"some":[20],"supply-and-demand":[21],"challenges":[22],"in":[23,54,144],"system,":[26],"such":[27],"as":[28,121,132],"assistants,":[31],"chatbots":[32],"robots.":[34],"This":[35],"paper":[36,71],"focuses":[37],"on":[38,63,66],"tailoring":[39],"LLMs":[40,65,89],"data":[43],"utilising":[44],"a":[45,55],"Retrieval-Augmented":[46],"Generation":[47],"(RAG)":[48],"database":[49],"evaluate":[51],"their":[52],"performance":[53],"computationally":[56],"resource-constrained":[57],"environment.":[58],"Existing":[59],"studies":[60],"primarily":[61],"focus":[62],"fine-tuning":[64],"data,":[68],"but":[69],"this":[70],"combines":[72],"RAG":[73,84,152],"fine-tuned":[75,95],"models":[76,82],"compares":[78],"them":[79],"against":[80],"base":[81],"using":[83,96],"or":[85],"only":[86],"fine-tuning.":[87],"Open-source":[88],"(Flan-T5-Large,":[90],"LLaMA-2-7B,":[91],"Mistral-7B)":[93],"are":[94,104,153],"datasets":[99],"Meadow-MedQA":[100],"MedMCQA.":[102],"Experiments":[103],"reported":[105],"for":[106,155],"response":[107],"generation":[108,134,139],"multiple-choice":[110],"question":[111,123],"answering.":[112],"The":[113],"latter":[114],"uses":[115],"two":[116],"distinct":[117],"methodologies:":[118],"Type":[119,130,161,164],"A,":[120],"standard":[122],"answering":[124],"via":[125],"direct":[126],"choice":[127],"selection;":[128],"B,":[131],"language":[133],"probability":[136],"confidence":[137],"score":[138],"of":[140],"choices":[141],"available.":[142],"Results":[143],"domain":[147],"revealed":[148],"that":[149,159],"Fine-tuning":[150],"crucial":[154],"improved":[156],"performance,":[157],"methodology":[160],"A":[162],"outperforms":[163],"B.":[165]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":40}],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}