{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4401206524","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make6030088","title":"Learning Optimal Dynamic Treatment Regime from Observational Clinical Data through Reinforcement Learning","display_name":"Learning Optimal Dynamic Treatment Regime from Observational Clinical Data through Reinforcement Learning","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-07-30","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4401206524","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make6030088"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make6030088","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make6030088","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/6/3/88/pdf?version=1722336381","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/6/3/88/pdf?version=1722336381","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071034705","display_name":"Seyum Assefa Abebe","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149461666","display_name":"Ca' Foscari University of Venice","ror":"https://ror.org/04yzxz566","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149461666"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210137980","display_name":"European Centre for Living Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04kesq777","country_code":"IT","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Seyum Abebe","raw_affiliation_strings":["European Centre for Living Technology, Ca\u2019 Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","European Centre for Living Technology, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"European Centre for Living Technology, Ca\u2019 Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980","https://openalex.org/I149461666"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"European Centre for Living Technology, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980","https://openalex.org/I149461666"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062549399","display_name":"Irene Poli","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7828-2480"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149461666","display_name":"Ca' Foscari University of Venice","ror":"https://ror.org/04yzxz566","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149461666"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210137980","display_name":"European Centre for Living Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04kesq777","country_code":"IT","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Irene Poli","raw_affiliation_strings":["European Centre for Living Technology, Ca\u2019 Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","European Centre for Living Technology, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"European Centre for Living Technology, Ca\u2019 Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980","https://openalex.org/I149461666"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"European Centre for Living Technology, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980","https://openalex.org/I149461666"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5013858299","display_name":"Roger D. Jones","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8491-5421"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149461666","display_name":"Ca' Foscari University of Venice","ror":"https://ror.org/04yzxz566","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149461666"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210137980","display_name":"European Centre for Living Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04kesq777","country_code":"IT","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Roger D. Jones","raw_affiliation_strings":["European Centre for Living Technology, Ca\u2019 Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","European Centre for Living Technology, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"European Centre for Living Technology, Ca\u2019 Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980","https://openalex.org/I149461666"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"European Centre for Living Technology, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980","https://openalex.org/I149461666"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046899009","display_name":"Debora Slanzi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4204-1009"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I149461666","display_name":"Ca' Foscari University of Venice","ror":"https://ror.org/04yzxz566","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149461666"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210137980","display_name":"European Centre for Living Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04kesq777","country_code":"IT","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Debora Slanzi","raw_affiliation_strings":["European Centre for Living Technology, Ca\u2019 Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","European Centre for Living Technology, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"European Centre for Living Technology, Ca\u2019 Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980","https://openalex.org/I149461666"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"European Centre for Living Technology, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, 30123 Venice, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210137980","https://openalex.org/I149461666"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5071034705"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I149461666","https://openalex.org/I4210137980"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":0.7238,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.72512714,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":91,"max":95},"biblio":{"volume":"6","issue":"3","first_page":"1798","last_page":"1817"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10845","display_name":"Advanced Causal Inference Techniques","score":0.9993000030517578,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2613","display_name":"Statistics and Probability"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/26","display_name":"Mathematics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10845","display_name":"Advanced Causal Inference Techniques","score":0.9993000030517578,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2613","display_name":"Statistics and Probability"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/26","display_name":"Mathematics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11235","display_name":"Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials","score":0.9983999729156494,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2613","display_name":"Statistics and Probability"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/26","display_name":"Mathematics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10804","display_name":"Health Systems, Economic Evaluations, Quality of Life","score":0.9934999942779541,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2002","display_name":"Economics and Econometrics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/20","display_name":"Economics, Econometrics and Finance"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/observational-study","display_name":"Observational study","score":0.7078600525856018},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.6778019070625305},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/observational-learning","display_name":"Observational learning","score":0.5826578140258789},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement","display_name":"Reinforcement","score":0.44481486082077026},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.3726300597190857},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.3550386428833008},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.33338791131973267},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics-education","display_name":"Mathematics education","score":0.16467824578285217},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.15949177742004395},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.1480710208415985},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/social-psychology","display_name":"Social psychology","score":0.13636568188667297},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/experiential-learning","display_name":"Experiential learning","score":0.09370237588882446}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C23131810","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q818574","display_name":"Observational study","level":2,"score":0.7078600525856018},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.6778019070625305},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C102483320","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1143725","display_name":"Observational learning","level":3,"score":0.5826578140258789},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67203356","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321905","display_name":"Reinforcement","level":2,"score":0.44481486082077026},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.3726300597190857},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.3550386428833008},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.33338791131973267},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.16467824578285217},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.15949177742004395},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.1480710208415985},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.13636568188667297},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37228920","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1307600","display_name":"Experiential learning","level":2,"score":0.09370237588882446}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/make6030088","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make6030088","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/6/3/88/pdf?version=1722336381","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:iris.unive.it:10278/5069103","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10278/5069103","pdf_url":"https://iris.unive.it/bitstream/10278/5069103/1/make-06-00088.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402336","display_name":"ARCA (Universit\u00e0 Ca' Foscari Venezia)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I149461666","host_organization_name":"Ca' Foscari University of Venice","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149461666"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:777d818e90b34b589d3ffecd785054c2","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/777d818e90b34b589d3ffecd785054c2","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction, Vol 6, Iss 3, Pp 1798-1817 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/make6030088","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/make6030088","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-4990/6/3/88/pdf?version=1722336381","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210213891","display_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","issn_l":"2504-4990","issn":["2504-4990"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4401206524.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4401206524.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":49,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W25182770","https://openalex.org/W32403112","https://openalex.org/W1599740911","https://openalex.org/W1773416374","https://openalex.org/W1971712327","https://openalex.org/W1981158530","https://openalex.org/W2057086083","https://openalex.org/W2082299845","https://openalex.org/W2085227190","https://openalex.org/W2114884940","https://openalex.org/W2116739230","https://openalex.org/W2129303710","https://openalex.org/W2134103864","https://openalex.org/W2150291618","https://openalex.org/W2151832869","https://openalex.org/W2156112512","https://openalex.org/W2165612525","https://openalex.org/W2165867286","https://openalex.org/W2305754340","https://openalex.org/W2404401223","https://openalex.org/W2411613392","https://openalex.org/W2496321160","https://openalex.org/W2505625229","https://openalex.org/W2588342270","https://openalex.org/W2595280988","https://openalex.org/W2620804920","https://openalex.org/W2645304696","https://openalex.org/W2753213548","https://openalex.org/W2766525247","https://openalex.org/W2792824796","https://openalex.org/W2801264239","https://openalex.org/W2822564837","https://openalex.org/W2892114828","https://openalex.org/W2921518676","https://openalex.org/W2945296140","https://openalex.org/W2977728615","https://openalex.org/W3084285105","https://openalex.org/W3102615478","https://openalex.org/W3132548924","https://openalex.org/W3201412947","https://openalex.org/W3212597612","https://openalex.org/W4205926160","https://openalex.org/W4210811019","https://openalex.org/W4212971335","https://openalex.org/W4224878656","https://openalex.org/W4231760107","https://openalex.org/W4242665286","https://openalex.org/W6685366099","https://openalex.org/W6723772546"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4292295208","https://openalex.org/W3005195263","https://openalex.org/W2984754350","https://openalex.org/W2049593823","https://openalex.org/W2785314358","https://openalex.org/W2379438865","https://openalex.org/W1596863351","https://openalex.org/W1862778508","https://openalex.org/W2948271338","https://openalex.org/W2050730932"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"In":[0],"medicine,":[1],"dynamic":[2,148],"treatment":[3,11,48,133,149,163],"regimes":[4,150],"(DTRs)":[5],"have":[6,60],"emerged":[7],"to":[8,31,66,102,115,154],"guide":[9],"personalized":[10,156],"decisions":[12],"for":[13,16,23,37,147],"patients,":[14],"accounting":[15],"their":[17],"unique":[18],"characteristics.":[19],"However,":[20],"existing":[21],"methods":[22],"determining":[24],"optimal":[25,132],"DTRs":[26],"face":[27],"limitations,":[28],"often":[29],"due":[30],"reliance":[32],"on":[33,44,130],"linear":[34],"models":[35],"unsuitable":[36],"complex":[38],"disease":[39],"analysis":[40],"and":[41,70,90,118,161],"a":[42],"focus":[43],"outcome":[45],"prediction":[46],"over":[47],"effect":[49],"estimation.":[50],"To":[51],"overcome":[52],"these":[53],"challenges,":[54],"decision":[55,143],"tree-based":[56,75,86,144],"reinforcement":[57,76,87,145],"learning":[58,77,88,146],"approaches":[59],"been":[61],"proposed.":[62],"Our":[63],"study":[64],"aims":[65],"evaluate":[67],"the":[68,109,119,140],"performance":[69],"feasibility":[71],"of":[72,111,125,142],"such":[73],"algorithms:":[74],"(T-RL),":[78],"DTR-Causal":[79,82],"Tree":[80],"(DTR-CT),":[81],"Forest":[83],"(DTR-CF),":[84],"stochastic":[85],"(SL-RL),":[89],"Q-learning":[91],"with":[92,122],"Random":[93],"Forest.":[94],"Using":[95],"real-world":[96],"clinical":[97],"data,":[98],"we":[99],"conducted":[100],"experiments":[101],"compare":[103],"algorithm":[104],"performances.":[105],"Evaluation":[106],"metrics":[107],"included":[108],"proportion":[110],"correctly":[112],"assigned":[113],"patients":[114],"recommended":[116],"treatments":[117],"empirical":[120],"mean":[121],"standard":[123],"deviation":[124],"expected":[126],"counterfactual":[127],"outcomes":[128],"based":[129],"estimated":[131],"strategies.":[134],"This":[135],"research":[136],"not":[137],"only":[138],"highlights":[139],"potential":[141],"but":[151],"also":[152],"contributes":[153],"advancing":[155],"medicine":[157],"by":[158],"offering":[159],"nuanced":[160],"effective":[162],"recommendations.":[164]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-03-20T23:20:44.827607","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}