{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414515700","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan14050094","title":"A Survey of Three-Dimensional Wireless Sensor Networks Deployment Techniques","display_name":"A Survey of Three-Dimensional Wireless Sensor Networks Deployment Techniques","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-09-24","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414515700","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan14050094"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/jsan14050094","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan14050094","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2736633529","display_name":"Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks","issn_l":"2224-2708","issn":["2224-2708"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan14050094","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5107929630","display_name":"T. Cao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5835-3595"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I118574674","display_name":"Jiangsu Normal University","ror":"https://ror.org/051hvcm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I118574674"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tingting Cao","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I118574674"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5058023767","display_name":"Fan Yang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0365-710X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I118574674","display_name":"Jiangsu Normal University","ror":"https://ror.org/051hvcm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I118574674"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Fan Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0365-710X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I118574674"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Chensiyu Fan","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I118574674","display_name":"Jiangsu Normal University","ror":"https://ror.org/051hvcm98","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I118574674"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chensiyu Fan","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I118574674"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100751341","display_name":"Ru Han","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5128-1314"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I119454577","display_name":"Nanjing Agricultural University","ror":"https://ror.org/05td3s095","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I119454577"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ru Han","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Smart Agriculture (Artificial Intelligence), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210031, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Smart Agriculture (Artificial Intelligence), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210031, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I119454577"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5037011023","display_name":"Xing Yang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7818-1030"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184681353","display_name":"Anhui University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q9atg80","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I184681353"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210109416","display_name":"Anhui Science and Technology University","ror":"https://ror.org/01pn91c28","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210109416"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xing Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Intelligent Manufacturing, Anhui Science and Technology University, Chuzhou 233100, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7818-1030","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Intelligent Manufacturing, Anhui Science and Technology University, Chuzhou 233100, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184681353","https://openalex.org/I4210109416"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007723627","display_name":"Lei Shu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6700-9347"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I119454577","display_name":"Nanjing Agricultural University","ror":"https://ror.org/05td3s095","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I119454577"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Lei Shu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Smart Agriculture (Artificial Intelligence), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210031, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6700-9347","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Smart Agriculture (Artificial Intelligence), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210031, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I119454577"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5007723627","https://openalex.org/A5058023767"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I118574674","https://openalex.org/I119454577"],"apc_list":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2413},"apc_paid":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2413},"fwci":1.1744,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.81820458,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":"5","first_page":"94","last_page":"94"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10080","display_name":"Energy Efficient Wireless Sensor Networks","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10080","display_name":"Energy Efficient Wireless Sensor Networks","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11192","display_name":"Underwater Vehicles and Communication Systems","score":0.9876000285148621,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2212","display_name":"Ocean Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12222","display_name":"IoT-based Smart Home Systems","score":0.9821000099182129,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-deployment","display_name":"Software deployment","score":0.8795999884605408},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wireless-sensor-network","display_name":"Wireless sensor network","score":0.7391999959945679},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.5368000268936157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/node","display_name":"Node (physics)","score":0.447299987077713},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/protocol","display_name":"Protocol (science)","score":0.42640000581741333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key-distribution-in-wireless-sensor-networks","display_name":"Key distribution in wireless sensor networks","score":0.3887999951839447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wireless","display_name":"Wireless","score":0.3553999960422516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/selection","display_name":"Selection (genetic algorithm)","score":0.3449000120162964}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.8795999884605408},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.819599986076355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24590314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q336038","display_name":"Wireless sensor network","level":2,"score":0.7391999959945679},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.5368000268936157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120314980","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180634","display_name":"Distributed computing","level":1,"score":0.46630001068115234},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62611344","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1062658","display_name":"Node (physics)","level":2,"score":0.447299987077713},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780385302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367158","display_name":"Protocol (science)","level":3,"score":0.42640000581741333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41971633","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6398155","display_name":"Key distribution in wireless sensor networks","level":4,"score":0.3887999951839447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.3578999936580658},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555944384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249","display_name":"Wireless","level":2,"score":0.3553999960422516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81917197","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q628760","display_name":"Selection (genetic algorithm)","level":2,"score":0.3449000120162964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111185680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3866206","display_name":"Sensor node","level":5,"score":0.33880001306533813},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108037233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11375","display_name":"Wireless network","level":3,"score":0.33090001344680786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.3057999908924103},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C181335050","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14915018","display_name":"Swarm behaviour","level":2,"score":0.28929999470710754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98083399","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3246517","display_name":"Underwater","level":2,"score":0.2863999903202057},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119487961","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863960","display_name":"Swarm intelligence","level":3,"score":0.28610000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.27869999408721924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139502532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1122090","display_name":"Computational intelligence","level":2,"score":0.27070000767707825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779843651","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7390335","display_name":"SIGNAL (programming language)","level":2,"score":0.26919999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.26669999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C133462117","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4929239","display_name":"Data collection","level":2,"score":0.25850000977516174}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/jsan14050094","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan14050094","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2736633529","display_name":"Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks","issn_l":"2224-2708","issn":["2224-2708"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:3f6cf26433ce4ffe94800629b47fd93d","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/3f6cf26433ce4ffe94800629b47fd93d","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks, Vol 14, Iss 5, p 94 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/jsan14050094","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan14050094","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2736633529","display_name":"Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks","issn_l":"2224-2708","issn":["2224-2708"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":113,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W603553067","https://openalex.org/W1134161919","https://openalex.org/W1538345901","https://openalex.org/W1578752866","https://openalex.org/W1786686177","https://openalex.org/W2012913059","https://openalex.org/W2014635219","https://openalex.org/W2029138755","https://openalex.org/W2052278475","https://openalex.org/W2067275213","https://openalex.org/W2083129643","https://openalex.org/W2083224558","https://openalex.org/W2127862223","https://openalex.org/W2134161716","https://openalex.org/W2138586146","https://openalex.org/W2140718308","https://openalex.org/W2156194072","https://openalex.org/W2164899652","https://openalex.org/W2319765837","https://openalex.org/W2498534490","https://openalex.org/W2515609985","https://openalex.org/W2531602112","https://openalex.org/W2560663865","https://openalex.org/W2599531082","https://openalex.org/W2626839650","https://openalex.org/W2737547700","https://openalex.org/W2746182155","https://openalex.org/W2758333435","https://openalex.org/W2762660066","https://openalex.org/W2785852383","https://openalex.org/W2786741063","https://openalex.org/W2791550346","https://openalex.org/W2793188406","https://openalex.org/W2794131458","https://openalex.org/W2797265096","https://openalex.org/W2810433582","https://openalex.org/W2889280840","https://openalex.org/W2902259735","https://openalex.org/W2908483331","https://openalex.org/W2909246134","https://openalex.org/W2910785692","https://openalex.org/W2912032477","https://openalex.org/W2922275222","https://openalex.org/W2936315995","https://openalex.org/W2940023940","https://openalex.org/W2943160703","https://openalex.org/W2945979486","https://openalex.org/W2946106895","https://openalex.org/W2958207997","https://openalex.org/W2969831384","https://openalex.org/W2973722420","https://openalex.org/W2977559584","https://openalex.org/W2979184441","https://openalex.org/W2983361119","https://openalex.org/W2986166106","https://openalex.org/W2995038001","https://openalex.org/W3002155360","https://openalex.org/W3008838497","https://openalex.org/W3014078249","https://openalex.org/W3020073652","https://openalex.org/W3028314711","https://openalex.org/W3039443341","https://openalex.org/W3046672755","https://openalex.org/W3047459637","https://openalex.org/W3086705975","https://openalex.org/W3088500570","https://openalex.org/W3092368286","https://openalex.org/W3094451485","https://openalex.org/W3098724317","https://openalex.org/W3119374954","https://openalex.org/W3119915333","https://openalex.org/W3120277564","https://openalex.org/W3121036318","https://openalex.org/W3127714480","https://openalex.org/W3135145660","https://openalex.org/W3135869827","https://openalex.org/W3149600558","https://openalex.org/W3159028135","https://openalex.org/W3159659024","https://openalex.org/W3190213038","https://openalex.org/W3194598897","https://openalex.org/W3198282071","https://openalex.org/W3205000294","https://openalex.org/W4210795322","https://openalex.org/W4221111499","https://openalex.org/W4224309532","https://openalex.org/W4233676160","https://openalex.org/W4241547299","https://openalex.org/W4250863246","https://openalex.org/W4291474825","https://openalex.org/W4306721751","https://openalex.org/W4309449412","https://openalex.org/W4312579590","https://openalex.org/W4312889878","https://openalex.org/W4313494538","https://openalex.org/W4319159613","https://openalex.org/W4362469298","https://openalex.org/W4377091024","https://openalex.org/W4378228333","https://openalex.org/W4379985154","https://openalex.org/W4385938171","https://openalex.org/W4386231126","https://openalex.org/W4387611146","https://openalex.org/W4391248479","https://openalex.org/W4392902698","https://openalex.org/W4393132435","https://openalex.org/W4396754402","https://openalex.org/W4403276794","https://openalex.org/W4406094183","https://openalex.org/W4406266396","https://openalex.org/W4409659921","https://openalex.org/W4412623170","https://openalex.org/W4412718946"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Three-dimensional":[0],"(3D)":[1],"wireless":[2],"sensor":[3,68],"networks":[4],"(WSNs)":[5],"are":[6,80,121],"gaining":[7],"increasing":[8],"significance":[9],"in":[10,33,52,134,142,167],"applications":[11],"across":[12],"complex":[13],"environments,":[14],"including":[15],"underwater":[16],"monitoring,":[17],"mountainous":[18],"terrains,":[19],"and":[20,38,66,71,74,99,113,117,154,162,180,191],"smart":[21],"cities.":[22],"Compared":[23],"to":[24,123,139,150,159,174],"two-dimensional":[25],"(2D)":[26],"WSNs,":[27],"3D":[28,53],"WSNs":[29],"introduce":[30],"unique":[31],"challenges":[32],"coverage,":[34],"connectivity,":[35,67],"map":[36,76],"construction,":[37],"blind":[39],"area":[40],"detection.":[41],"This":[42],"paper":[43],"provides":[44],"a":[45,185],"comprehensive":[46],"survey":[47,172],"of":[48],"node":[49],"deployment":[50,130,197],"strategies":[51,136],"WSNs.":[54],"We":[55],"summarize":[56],"several":[57],"key":[58],"design":[59,111],"aspects:":[60],"sensing":[61],"models,":[62],"occlusion":[63],"detection,":[64],"coverage":[65,157,166],"mobility,":[69],"signal":[70],"protocol":[72],"effects,":[73],"simulation":[75],"construction.":[77],"Deployment":[78],"algorithms":[79,147,194],"categorized":[81],"into":[82],"six":[83],"main":[84],"types:":[85],"classical":[86],"algorithms,":[87,90,93,95,98],"computational":[88],"geometry":[89],"virtual":[91],"force":[92],"evolutionary":[94],"swarm":[96],"intelligence":[97],"approximation":[100],"algorithms.":[101],"For":[102],"each":[103],"category,":[104],"we":[105],"review":[106],"representative":[107],"works,":[108],"analyze":[109],"their":[110,115],"principles,":[112],"evaluate":[114],"advantages":[116],"limitations.":[118],"Comparative":[119],"summaries":[120],"included":[122],"facilitate":[124],"algorithm":[125],"selection":[126],"based":[127],"on":[128],"specific":[129],"requirements.":[131],"Recent":[132],"advancements":[133],"these":[135],"have":[137],"led":[138],"significant":[140],"improvements":[141],"network":[143],"performance,":[144],"with":[145],"some":[146],"achieving":[148],"up":[149],"12.5%":[151],"lower":[152],"cost":[153],"30%":[155],"higher":[156],"compared":[158],"earlier":[160],"methods,":[161],"even":[163],"reaching":[164],"100%":[165],"certain":[168],"cases.":[169],"Thus,":[170],"this":[171],"aims":[173],"present":[175],"the":[176],"current":[177],"research":[178],"status":[179],"highlight":[181],"practical":[182],"improvements,":[183],"offering":[184],"reference":[186],"for":[187,195],"understanding":[188],"existing":[189],"approaches":[190],"selecting":[192],"appropriate":[193],"diverse":[196],"scenarios.":[198]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-08-21T09:56:20.448147","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}