{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3209329320","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jcp1040031","title":"CyBERT: Cybersecurity Claim Classification by Fine-Tuning the BERT Language Model","display_name":"CyBERT: Cybersecurity Claim Classification by Fine-Tuning the BERT Language Model","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-11-04","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3209329320","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jcp1040031","mag":"3209329320"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/jcp1040031","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jcp1040031","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2624-800X/1/4/31/pdf?version=1636163103","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210232532","display_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy","issn_l":"2624-800X","issn":["2624-800X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2624-800X/1/4/31/pdf?version=1636163103","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5070342909","display_name":"Kimia Ameri","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2879-1871"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I114395901","display_name":"University of Nebraska\u2013Lincoln","ror":"https://ror.org/043mer456","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I114395901"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kimia Ameri","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68182, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68182, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I114395901"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5041294451","display_name":"Michael Hempel","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7091-8349"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I114395901","display_name":"University of Nebraska\u2013Lincoln","ror":"https://ror.org/043mer456","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I114395901"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Michael Hempel","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68182, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68182, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I114395901"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032208035","display_name":"Hamid Sharif","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6229-2043"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I114395901","display_name":"University of Nebraska\u2013Lincoln","ror":"https://ror.org/043mer456","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I114395901"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Hamid Sharif","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68182, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68182, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I114395901"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101896115","display_name":"Juan Lopez","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5083-8627"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1289243028","display_name":"Oak Ridge National Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/01qz5mb56","country_code":"US","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1289243028","https://openalex.org/I1330989302","https://openalex.org/I39565521","https://openalex.org/I4210159294"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Juan Lopez Jr.","raw_affiliation_strings":["Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1289243028"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046010392","display_name":"Kalyan S. Perumalla","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7458-0832"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1289243028","display_name":"Oak Ridge National Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/01qz5mb56","country_code":"US","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1289243028","https://openalex.org/I1330989302","https://openalex.org/I39565521","https://openalex.org/I4210159294"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kalyan Perumalla","raw_affiliation_strings":["Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1289243028"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5032208035"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I114395901"],"apc_list":{"value":1000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1082},"apc_paid":{"value":1000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1082},"fwci":7.3642,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":73,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.97385781,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"1","issue":"4","first_page":"615","last_page":"637"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9972000122070312,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9972000122070312,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.9919999837875366,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.9916999936103821,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.794028639793396},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6308574676513672},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/classifier","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","score":0.6280044317245483},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hyperparameter","display_name":"Hyperparameter","score":0.588360071182251},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.5743180513381958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/initialization","display_name":"Initialization","score":0.5482783317565918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.4793975353240967},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.46213454008102417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-forest","display_name":"Random forest","score":0.4598122537136078},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encoder","display_name":"Encoder","score":0.4227997362613678},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.4153982996940613}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.794028639793396},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6308574676513672},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95623464","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1096149","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","level":2,"score":0.6280044317245483},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8642999","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4171168","display_name":"Hyperparameter","level":2,"score":0.588360071182251},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.5743180513381958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C114466953","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6034165","display_name":"Initialization","level":2,"score":0.5482783317565918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4793975353240967},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.46213454008102417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169258074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245748","display_name":"Random forest","level":2,"score":0.4598122537136078},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118505674","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42586063","display_name":"Encoder","level":2,"score":0.4227997362613678},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.4153982996940613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55493867","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7094","display_name":"Biochemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104317684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187","display_name":"Gene","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/jcp1040031","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jcp1040031","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2624-800X/1/4/31/pdf?version=1636163103","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210232532","display_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy","issn_l":"2624-800X","issn":["2624-800X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:digitalcommons.unl.edu:electricalengineeringfacpub-1682","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/electricalengineeringfacpub/695","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306513441","display_name":"Insecta mundi","issn_l":"0749-6737","issn":["0749-6737","1942-1354","1942-1362"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310316217","host_organization_name":"Center for Systematic Entomology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310316217"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Center for Systematic Entomology"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Faculty Publications from the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:4ccf8288bfb24ba89bd80cc34057b3d8","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/4ccf8288bfb24ba89bd80cc34057b3d8","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy, Vol 1, Iss 4, Pp 615-637 (2021)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:osti.gov:1828972","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1828972","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402487","display_name":"OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I139351228","host_organization_name":"Office of Scientific and Technical Information","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I139351228"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:osti.gov:1830135","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1830135","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402487","display_name":"OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I139351228","host_organization_name":"Office of Scientific and Technical Information","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I139351228"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":null}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/jcp1040031","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/jcp1040031","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2624-800X/1/4/31/pdf?version=1636163103","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210232532","display_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy","issn_l":"2624-800X","issn":["2624-800X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.5,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9","display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1655119710","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"4000175929","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306084","funder_display_name":"U.S. Department of Energy"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306084","display_name":"U.S. Department of Energy","ror":"https://ror.org/01bj3aw27"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3209329320.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3209329320.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":37,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1682403713","https://openalex.org/W2153579005","https://openalex.org/W2158698691","https://openalex.org/W2170240176","https://openalex.org/W2250539671","https://openalex.org/W2296283641","https://openalex.org/W2484181788","https://openalex.org/W2493916176","https://openalex.org/W2911489562","https://openalex.org/W2914767245","https://openalex.org/W2962739339","https://openalex.org/W2963026768","https://openalex.org/W2964054038","https://openalex.org/W2969762015","https://openalex.org/W2970771982","https://openalex.org/W2972668795","https://openalex.org/W2977526300","https://openalex.org/W2980708516","https://openalex.org/W3034156543","https://openalex.org/W3035101152","https://openalex.org/W3035296331","https://openalex.org/W3035858791","https://openalex.org/W3079689340","https://openalex.org/W3087623576","https://openalex.org/W3093266389","https://openalex.org/W3108011434","https://openalex.org/W3112891652","https://openalex.org/W3117527017","https://openalex.org/W3133702157","https://openalex.org/W3153298707","https://openalex.org/W3157029757","https://openalex.org/W3165688004","https://openalex.org/W3180238884","https://openalex.org/W3210162706","https://openalex.org/W4287187601","https://openalex.org/W6685053522","https://openalex.org/W6752788575"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3204184292","https://openalex.org/W2140186469","https://openalex.org/W3176564347","https://openalex.org/W4390421286","https://openalex.org/W1985458517","https://openalex.org/W2355833770","https://openalex.org/W4280563792","https://openalex.org/W4386295066","https://openalex.org/W4225647658","https://openalex.org/W3137686095"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"We":[0,67],"introduce":[1],"CyBERT,":[2,31],"a":[3,16,34,45,63,138,202],"cybersecurity":[4,22,203],"feature":[5,204],"claims":[6,205],"classifier":[7],"based":[8],"on":[9,188],"bidirectional":[10],"encoder":[11],"representations":[12],"from":[13,39,108],"transformers":[14],"and":[15,50,84,133,166,178,192,199],"key":[17],"component":[18],"in":[19,105,129],"our":[20,92],"semi-automated":[21],"vetting":[23],"for":[24,57,124],"industrial":[25],"control":[26],"systems":[27],"(ICS).":[28],"To":[29],"train":[30],"we":[32,121,151],"created":[33],"corpus":[35,53],"of":[36,48,81,91,97,127,141,156],"labeled":[37],"sequences":[38],"ICS":[40],"device":[41],"documentation":[42],"collected":[43],"across":[44,145],"wide":[46],"range":[47],"vendors":[49],"devices.":[51],"This":[52],"provides":[54],"the":[55,76,79,89,98,125,130,154,189,193],"foundation":[56],"fine-tuning":[58],"BERT\u2019s":[59],"language":[60,161],"model,":[61],"including":[62,75,163],"prediction-guided":[64],"relabeling":[65],"process.":[66],"propose":[68],"an":[69,103],"approach":[70],"to":[71,87,102,115,158],"obtain":[72],"optimal":[73],"hyperparameters,":[74],"learning":[77],"rate,":[78],"number":[80],"dense":[82],"layers,":[83],"their":[85],"configuration,":[86],"increase":[88,104],"accuracy":[90,107,191,200],"classifier.":[93,206],"Fine-tuning":[94],"all":[95],"hyperparameters":[96],"resulting":[99],"model":[100],"led":[101],"classification":[106],"76%":[109],"obtained":[110,117],"with":[111,118],"BertForSequenceClassification\u2019s":[112],"original":[113],"architecture":[114],"94.4%":[116],"CyBERT.":[119],"Furthermore,":[120],"evaluated":[122],"CyBERT":[123,136,157,184],"impact":[126],"randomness":[128],"initialization,":[131],"training,":[132],"data-sampling":[134],"phases.":[135],"demonstrated":[137],"standard":[139],"deviation":[140],"\u00b10.6%":[142],"during":[143],"validation":[144,190],"100":[146],"random":[147],"seed":[148],"values.":[149],"Finally,":[150],"also":[152],"compared":[153],"performance":[155],"other":[159],"well-established":[160],"models":[162,173,187],"GPT2,":[164],"ULMFiT,":[165],"ELMo,":[167],"as":[168,170,175,201],"well":[169],"neural":[171],"network":[172],"such":[174],"CNN,":[176],"LSTM,":[177],"BiLSTM.":[179],"The":[180],"results":[181],"showed":[182],"that":[183],"outperforms":[185],"these":[186],"F1":[194],"score,":[195],"validating":[196],"CyBERT\u2019s":[197],"robustness":[198]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":21},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":29},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":12},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":5}],"updated_date":"2026-04-18T07:56:08.524223","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}