{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7140299119","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info17040320","title":"Detection of LLM-Generated Text vs. Human Text via DeepSeek-R1 Multi-Feature Fusion","display_name":"Detection of LLM-Generated Text vs. Human Text via DeepSeek-R1 Multi-Feature Fusion","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-25","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7140299119","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info17040320"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/info17040320","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info17040320","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/17/4/320/pdf?version=1774450596","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/17/4/320/pdf?version=1774450596","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5130553383","display_name":"Xuan Bu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I116265982","display_name":"Qinghai University","ror":"https://ror.org/05h33bt13","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xuan Bu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Joint Laboratory of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","School of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","School of Intelligent Science and Engineering, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6331-9076","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Joint Laboratory of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Intelligent Science and Engineering, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5002727274","display_name":"Minghu Tang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2236-959X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I116265982","display_name":"Qinghai University","ror":"https://ror.org/05h33bt13","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Minghu Tang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Joint Laboratory of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","School of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","School of Intelligent Science and Engineering, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Joint Laboratory of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Intelligent Science and Engineering, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Junjie Wang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I116265982","display_name":"Qinghai University","ror":"https://ror.org/05h33bt13","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Junjie Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Joint Laboratory of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","School of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","School of Intelligent Science and Engineering, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Joint Laboratory of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Intelligent Science and Engineering, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5026426054","display_name":"J. Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I116265982","display_name":"Qinghai University","ror":"https://ror.org/05h33bt13","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jiayi Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Joint Laboratory of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","School of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","School of Intelligent Science and Engineering, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-5764-9293","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Joint Laboratory of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Cyberspace Security, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Intelligent Science and Engineering, Qinghai Minzu University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101487785","display_name":"Peng Luo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7139-2498"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I20616075","display_name":"Qinghai Normal University","ror":"https://ror.org/03az1t892","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I20616075"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Peng Luo","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Qinghai Normal University, Xining 810007, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Qinghai Normal University, Xining 810007, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20616075"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5002727274"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I116265982"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1782},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1782},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.34939639,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"17","issue":"4","first_page":"320","last_page":"320"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12380","display_name":"Authorship Attribution and Profiling","score":0.334199994802475,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12380","display_name":"Authorship Attribution and Profiling","score":0.334199994802475,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.18930000066757202,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13910","display_name":"Computational and Text Analysis Methods","score":0.0681999996304512,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3300","display_name":"General Social Sciences"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language","display_name":"Natural language","score":0.589900016784668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/generative-grammar","display_name":"Generative grammar","score":0.5576000213623047},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.44350001215934753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-identification","display_name":"Language identification","score":0.4099000096321106},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mechanism","display_name":"Mechanism (biology)","score":0.37059998512268066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/text-generation","display_name":"Text generation","score":0.36809998750686646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-understanding","display_name":"Natural language understanding","score":0.33959999680519104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human-language","display_name":"Human language","score":0.33820000290870667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/generative-model","display_name":"Generative model","score":0.3066999912261963}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6897000074386597},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6370999813079834},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.6331999897956848},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.589900016784668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39890363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36108","display_name":"Generative grammar","level":2,"score":0.5576000213623047},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.44350001215934753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C129792486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1050419","display_name":"Language identification","level":3,"score":0.4099000096321106},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89611455","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6804646","display_name":"Mechanism (biology)","level":2,"score":0.37059998512268066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2985684807","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1513879","display_name":"Text generation","level":2,"score":0.36809998750686646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779439875","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1078276","display_name":"Natural language understanding","level":3,"score":0.33959999680519104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2993724205","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q315","display_name":"Human language","level":2,"score":0.33820000290870667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167966045","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5532625","display_name":"Generative model","level":3,"score":0.3066999912261963},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9652623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190109","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.3010999858379364},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33954974","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q486494","display_name":"Sensor fusion","level":2,"score":0.299699991941452},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776187449","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1513879","display_name":"Natural language generation","level":3,"score":0.2953000068664551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51632099","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3985153","display_name":"Training set","level":2,"score":0.29030001163482666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2982962833","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17092450","display_name":"Information fusion","level":2,"score":0.28839999437332153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158525013","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2593739","display_name":"Fusion","level":2,"score":0.2879999876022339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C83479923","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2063748","display_name":"Universal Networking Language","level":4,"score":0.2809999883174896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779529714","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2632744","display_name":"Graduation (instrument)","level":2,"score":0.2784000039100647},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776608160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4785462","display_name":"Natural (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.27639999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C155092808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182557","display_name":"Computational linguistics","level":2,"score":0.2759999930858612},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74672266","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q815859","display_name":"Language acquisition","level":2,"score":0.2644999921321869},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C173414695","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5510276","display_name":"Fusion mechanism","level":4,"score":0.25949999690055847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94922259","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33215","display_name":"Constructed language","level":2,"score":0.25369998812675476}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/info17040320","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info17040320","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/17/4/320/pdf?version=1774450596","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:0ced9c0d69e74bde91e03fb0a2c97389","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/0ced9c0d69e74bde91e03fb0a2c97389","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Information, Vol 17, Iss 4, p 320 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/info17040320","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info17040320","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/17/4/320/pdf?version=1774450596","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions","score":0.5232135653495789},{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10","display_name":"Reduced inequalities","score":0.44356465339660645}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7140299119.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7140299119.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":14,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1995875735","https://openalex.org/W2951080837","https://openalex.org/W2962897020","https://openalex.org/W3034287667","https://openalex.org/W4388774835","https://openalex.org/W4389520338","https://openalex.org/W4392563948","https://openalex.org/W4392669928","https://openalex.org/W4399427602","https://openalex.org/W4403432404","https://openalex.org/W4405182784","https://openalex.org/W4407811705","https://openalex.org/W4407894278","https://openalex.org/W4409346366"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"development":[1],"of":[2,46],"generative":[3],"artificial":[4],"intelligence":[5],"technology":[6],"has":[7,35],"brought":[8],"convenience":[9],"to":[10,31,84],"various":[11],"industries,":[12],"but":[13],"also":[14],"caused":[15],"some":[16],"confusion.":[17],"Especially":[18],"today,":[19],"when":[20],"the":[21,44,69,105],"content":[22],"generated":[23,62,87],"by":[24,63,88],"large":[25,64,89],"language":[26,65,71,77,90],"models":[27],"is":[28,57,98],"extremely":[29],"similar":[30],"real":[32],"text,":[33],"it":[34],"created":[36],"challenges":[37],"in":[38,43,49,51,104],"many":[39],"fields":[40],"(such":[41],"as":[42],"discrimination":[45],"graduation":[47],"theses":[48],"schools)":[50],"quickly":[52],"identifying":[53],"whether":[54],"a":[55,81],"text":[56,86],"from":[58],"human":[59],"sources":[60],"or":[61],"models.":[66,91],"Based":[67],"on":[68],"DeepSeek-R1":[70],"model,":[72],"this":[73],"paper":[74],"combines":[75],"natural":[76],"features":[78],"and":[79,108],"uses":[80],"judgment":[82],"mechanism":[83],"detect":[85],"Experimental":[92],"results":[93],"show":[94],"that":[95],"its":[96],"accuracy":[97],"improved":[99],"compared":[100],"with":[101],"conventional":[102],"methods":[103],"Reuters,":[106],"WP":[107],"HC3":[109],"datasets.":[110]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-23T08:03:31.855105","created_date":"2026-03-26T00:00:00"}