{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4416134326","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16110968","title":"Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in the Diagnosis and Prognosis of Diseases Through Breath Analysis: A Scoping Review","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in the Diagnosis and Prognosis of Diseases Through Breath Analysis: A Scoping Review","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-11-10","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4416134326","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16110968"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/info16110968","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16110968","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/11/968/pdf?version=1762773222","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/11/968/pdf?version=1762773222","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046515624","display_name":"Christos Kokkotis","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2972-3117"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Christos Kokkotis","raw_affiliation_strings":["AIDEAS O\u00dc, 10117 Tallinn, Estonia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"AIDEAS O\u00dc, 10117 Tallinn, Estonia","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077526481","display_name":"Serafeim Moustakidis","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1090-2177"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Serafeim Moustakidis","raw_affiliation_strings":["AIDEAS O\u00dc, 10117 Tallinn, Estonia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1090-2177","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"AIDEAS O\u00dc, 10117 Tallinn, Estonia","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5034096442","display_name":"Stefan J. Swift","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9120-302X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I35440088","display_name":"ETH Zurich","ror":"https://ror.org/05a28rw58","country_code":"CH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799323385","https://openalex.org/I35440088"]}],"countries":["CH"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Stefan James Swift","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETHZ, 8093 Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9120-302X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETHZ, 8093 Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I35440088"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5031222892","display_name":"Flora Kontopidou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3550-8536"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210132022","display_name":"Mitera Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/02mgwph26","country_code":"GR","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132022"]}],"countries":["GR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Flora Kontopidou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mitera Childrens\u2019 Hospital, 15123 Athens, Greece","Mitera Childrens' Hospital, 15123 Athens, Greece"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3550-8536","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mitera Childrens\u2019 Hospital, 15123 Athens, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210132022"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mitera Childrens' Hospital, 15123 Athens, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210132022"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000566126","display_name":"Ioannis Kavouras","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0448-9459"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210144519","display_name":"Institute of Communication and Computer Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/0483fn738","country_code":"GR","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210144519"]}],"countries":["GR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ioannis Kavouras","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Communications and Computer Systems, Iroon Polytechniou 9, 15773 Zografou, Greece"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0448-9459","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Communications and Computer Systems, Iroon Polytechniou 9, 15773 Zografou, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210144519"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5110574930","display_name":"Anastasios Doulamis","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210144519","display_name":"Institute of Communication and Computer Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/0483fn738","country_code":"GR","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210144519"]}],"countries":["GR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Anastasios Doulamis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Communications and Computer Systems, Iroon Polytechniou 9, 15773 Zografou, Greece"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Communications and Computer Systems, Iroon Polytechniou 9, 15773 Zografou, Greece","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210144519"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5019594100","display_name":"Stamatios Giannoukos","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5066-533X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I35440088","display_name":"ETH Zurich","ror":"https://ror.org/05a28rw58","country_code":"CH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799323385","https://openalex.org/I35440088"]}],"countries":["CH"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Stamatios Giannoukos","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETHZ, 8093 Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5066-533X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETHZ, 8093 Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I35440088"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5019594100"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I35440088"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":3.3782,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":8,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.92783062,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"16","issue":"11","first_page":"968","last_page":"968"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11667","display_name":"Advanced Chemical Sensor Technologies","score":0.9984999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11667","display_name":"Advanced Chemical Sensor Technologies","score":0.9984999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11393","display_name":"Biosensors and Analytical Detection","score":0.00019999999494757503,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11584","display_name":"Biochemical Analysis and Sensing Techniques","score":9.999999747378752e-05,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2916","display_name":"Nutrition and Dietetics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/29","display_name":"Nursing"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/breath-gas-analysis","display_name":"Breath gas analysis","score":0.5055999755859375},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature-selection","display_name":"Feature selection","score":0.48069998621940613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scope","display_name":"Scope (computer science)","score":0.36890000104904175},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.3147999942302704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/disease","display_name":"Disease","score":0.31459999084472656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ensemble-learning","display_name":"Ensemble learning","score":0.3073999881744385},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.296999990940094}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.823199987411499},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.8032000064849854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C93353639","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q754258","display_name":"Breath gas analysis","level":2,"score":0.5055999755859375},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148483581","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q446488","display_name":"Feature selection","level":2,"score":0.48069998621940613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.4253999888896942},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778012447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1034415","display_name":"Scope (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.36890000104904175},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.33739998936653137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.3147999942302704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779134260","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12136","display_name":"Disease","level":2,"score":0.31459999084472656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45942800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245652","display_name":"Ensemble learning","level":2,"score":0.3073999881744385},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.296999990940094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110083411","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1744628","display_name":"Statistical classification","level":2,"score":0.2953000068664551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.2930000126361847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779473830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1540899","display_name":"MEDLINE","level":2,"score":0.2922999858856201},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C189708586","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1504425","display_name":"Systematic review","level":3,"score":0.27489998936653137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63882131","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17122954","display_name":"Strengths and weaknesses","level":2,"score":0.2727000117301941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.2705000042915344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C157170001","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4781507","display_name":"Applications of artificial intelligence","level":2,"score":0.26759999990463257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84525736","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q831366","display_name":"Decision tree","level":2,"score":0.25110000371932983}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/info16110968","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16110968","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/11/968/pdf?version=1762773222","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:www.research-collection.ethz.ch:20.500.11850/788548","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850/788548","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402302","display_name":"Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I35440088","host_organization_name":"ETH Zurich","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I35440088"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information, 16 (11)","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:doi:10.3929/ethz-c-000788654","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850/788654","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Review Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:aa0af7fdfed145d88b53d56ada4f44c9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/aa0af7fdfed145d88b53d56ada4f44c9","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Information, Vol 16, Iss 11, p 968 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/info16110968","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16110968","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/11/968/pdf?version=1762773222","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4463874304","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"101115442","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7969563836","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"REF-1131-52304","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335238","funder_display_name":"Staatssekretariat f\u00fcr Bildung, Forschung und Innovation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8601864966","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"SBFI-Nr.23.00369","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335238","funder_display_name":"Staatssekretariat f\u00fcr Bildung, Forschung und Innovation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","display_name":"European Commission","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335238","display_name":"Staatssekretariat f\u00fcr Bildung, Forschung und Innovation","ror":"https://ror.org/01kw63t33"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4416134326.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4416134326.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":145,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1712892947","https://openalex.org/W1772557908","https://openalex.org/W1897831097","https://openalex.org/W1907388023","https://openalex.org/W1929170399","https://openalex.org/W1965473974","https://openalex.org/W1967432957","https://openalex.org/W1998994761","https://openalex.org/W1999282157","https://openalex.org/W2002899838","https://openalex.org/W2006168998","https://openalex.org/W2013287304","https://openalex.org/W2031842885","https://openalex.org/W2042137072","https://openalex.org/W2051854775","https://openalex.org/W2054188981","https://openalex.org/W2056132214","https://openalex.org/W2059982453","https://openalex.org/W2078357450","https://openalex.org/W2083248035","https://openalex.org/W2084107384","https://openalex.org/W2118720078","https://openalex.org/W2125862151","https://openalex.org/W2136566295","https://openalex.org/W2144208228","https://openalex.org/W2157520165","https://openalex.org/W2163286091","https://openalex.org/W2168716139","https://openalex.org/W2310044353","https://openalex.org/W2319460945","https://openalex.org/W2347180840","https://openalex.org/W2417822354","https://openalex.org/W2466694278","https://openalex.org/W2560024932","https://openalex.org/W2579149363","https://openalex.org/W2583341169","https://openalex.org/W2600355139","https://openalex.org/W2752863688","https://openalex.org/W2758818073","https://openalex.org/W2765805192","https://openalex.org/W2766636840","https://openalex.org/W2782631135","https://openalex.org/W2794728477","https://openalex.org/W2805029123","https://openalex.org/W2888855391","https://openalex.org/W2891378911","https://openalex.org/W2896513355","https://openalex.org/W2903918084","https://openalex.org/W2938896688","https://openalex.org/W2944966644","https://openalex.org/W2966234377","https://openalex.org/W2972340026","https://openalex.org/W3019844317","https://openalex.org/W3023333207","https://openalex.org/W3025531456","https://openalex.org/W3035452519","https://openalex.org/W3039372099","https://openalex.org/W3046880982","https://openalex.org/W3049021859","https://openalex.org/W3108465088","https://openalex.org/W3109644688","https://openalex.org/W3127727609","https://openalex.org/W3128757548","https://openalex.org/W3131000476","https://openalex.org/W3131457563","https://openalex.org/W3135772084","https://openalex.org/W3136238717","https://openalex.org/W3158154025","https://openalex.org/W3158605393","https://openalex.org/W3165466498","https://openalex.org/W3181149476","https://openalex.org/W3184018610","https://openalex.org/W3193427337","https://openalex.org/W3198940765","https://openalex.org/W3200629120","https://openalex.org/W3203044313","https://openalex.org/W3205153184","https://openalex.org/W3217280117","https://openalex.org/W4212924839","https://openalex.org/W4213201513","https://openalex.org/W4220661482","https://openalex.org/W4220986416","https://openalex.org/W4224238951","https://openalex.org/W4225572786","https://openalex.org/W4226025918","https://openalex.org/W4280572530","https://openalex.org/W4286359904","https://openalex.org/W4289444284","https://openalex.org/W4292060938","https://openalex.org/W4293805294","https://openalex.org/W4293879813","https://openalex.org/W4294219359","https://openalex.org/W4296627543","https://openalex.org/W4298005330","https://openalex.org/W4301603550","https://openalex.org/W4308541732","https://openalex.org/W4308921561","https://openalex.org/W4310437951","https://openalex.org/W4313340227","https://openalex.org/W4313421232","https://openalex.org/W4315567757","https://openalex.org/W4316494275","https://openalex.org/W4318263562","https://openalex.org/W4323920780","https://openalex.org/W4327517883","https://openalex.org/W4360976561","https://openalex.org/W4362474866","https://openalex.org/W4362602246","https://openalex.org/W4362734809","https://openalex.org/W4365144160","https://openalex.org/W4366815425","https://openalex.org/W4377224353","https://openalex.org/W4377966419","https://openalex.org/W4378085564","https://openalex.org/W4381435798","https://openalex.org/W4382724561","https://openalex.org/W4382999115","https://openalex.org/W4385476509","https://openalex.org/W4385972016","https://openalex.org/W4386241843","https://openalex.org/W4388041175","https://openalex.org/W4388406383","https://openalex.org/W4389509043","https://openalex.org/W4390990691","https://openalex.org/W4391261125","https://openalex.org/W4391928102","https://openalex.org/W4391989803","https://openalex.org/W4392345363","https://openalex.org/W4393098186","https://openalex.org/W4393545495","https://openalex.org/W4394570802","https://openalex.org/W4394932534","https://openalex.org/W4398147682","https://openalex.org/W4400026620","https://openalex.org/W4400487496","https://openalex.org/W4401154868","https://openalex.org/W4402360767","https://openalex.org/W4402442879","https://openalex.org/W4403968566","https://openalex.org/W4403982149","https://openalex.org/W4404317898","https://openalex.org/W4406947291","https://openalex.org/W4407166721","https://openalex.org/W4409892709","https://openalex.org/W4410213740"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Breath":[0],"analysis":[1,82],"is":[2],"a":[3],"non-invasive":[4,205],"diagnostic":[5,92],"method":[6],"that":[7,155,210],"offers":[8],"insights":[9],"into":[10,275],"both":[11],"physiological":[12],"and":[13,35,49,75,94,111,116,135,149,167,197,222,229,245,256,268,284],"pathological":[14],"conditions.":[15],"Exhaled":[16],"breath":[17,70,81,89,128,171],"contains":[18],"volatile":[19,88,129],"organic":[20,130],"compounds,":[21,131],"which":[22,152],"act":[23],"as":[24,243],"biomarkers":[25],"for":[26,30,114,204,234,239],"disease":[27,97,165,282],"detection,":[28],"allowing":[29],"the":[31,36,53,67,112,122,147,159,174,180,192,199,220,276],"monitoring":[32],"of":[33,38,69,124,161,194,201],"treatments":[34],"tailoring":[37],"medicine":[39],"to":[40,55,65,137,254,271,279],"individuals.":[41],"Recent":[42],"advancements":[43],"in":[44,126,164],"chemical":[45],"sensing,":[46],"mass":[47],"spectrometry,":[48],"spectroscopy":[50],"have":[51,79],"improved":[52],"ability":[54],"identify":[56],"these":[57],"biomarkers;":[58],"however,":[59],"traditional":[60,211],"statistical":[61],"approaches":[62],"often":[63],"struggle":[64],"handle":[66],"complexities":[68],"data.":[71],"Artificial":[72],"intelligence":[73],"(AI)":[74],"machine":[76,162],"learning":[77,163,224],"(ML)":[78],"revolutionized":[80],"by":[83],"uncovering":[84],"intricate":[85],"patterns":[86],"among":[87],"markers,":[90],"enhancing":[91,265],"precision,":[93],"facilitating":[95],"real-time":[96],"identification.":[98],"Despite":[99],"significant":[100],"progress,":[101],"challenges":[102,252],"remain,":[103],"including":[104],"issues":[105],"with":[106],"data":[107,257],"standardization,":[108],"model":[109,266],"interpretability,":[110],"necessity":[113],"extensive":[115],"varied":[117],"datasets.":[118],"This":[119],"study":[120],"reviews":[121],"applications":[123],"ML":[125,188,202,212],"analyzing":[127],"highlighting":[132],"methodological":[133],"shortcomings":[134],"obstacles":[136],"clinical":[138,277],"validation.":[139],"A":[140],"thorough":[141],"literature":[142],"review":[143],"was":[144],"performed":[145],"using":[146],"PubMed":[148],"Scopus":[150],"databases,":[151],"included":[153],"studies":[154,186,261],"focused":[156],"specifically":[157],"on":[158,219,264],"role":[160],"diagnosis":[166],"incidence":[168],"prediction":[169],"via":[170],"analysis.":[172],"Among":[173],"524":[175],"articles":[176],"reviewed,":[177],"97":[178],"satisfied":[179],"specified":[181],"inclusion":[182],"criteria.":[183],"The":[184,207],"selected":[185],"applied":[187],"techniques,":[189],"fell":[190],"within":[191],"scope":[193],"this":[195],"review,":[196],"emphasize":[198],"potential":[200],"models":[203],"diagnostics.":[206],"findings":[208],"indicate":[209],"methods":[213,217,270],"dominate,":[214],"while":[215],"ensemble":[216],"are":[218,231],"rise,":[221],"deep":[223],"(DL)":[225],"techniques":[226],"(especially":[227],"CNNs":[228],"LSTMs)":[230],"increasingly":[232],"used":[233],"classifying":[235],"respiratory":[236],"diseases.":[237],"Techniques":[238],"feature":[240],"selection":[241],"(such":[242],"PCA":[244],"ML-based":[246],"methods)":[247],"were":[248],"frequently":[249],"implemented,":[250],"though":[251],"related":[253],"explainability":[255],"standardization":[258],"persist.":[259],"Future":[260],"should":[262],"focus":[263],"transparency":[267],"developing":[269],"further":[272],"integrate":[273],"AI":[274],"setting":[278],"facilitate":[280],"early":[281],"detection":[283],"advance":[285],"precision":[286],"medicine.":[287]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":8}],"updated_date":"2026-07-13T07:31:44.756512","created_date":"2025-11-10T00:00:00"}