{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4409948913","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16050358","title":"Quantifying Gender Bias in Large Language Models Using Information-Theoretic and Statistical Analysis","display_name":"Quantifying Gender Bias in Large Language Models Using Information-Theoretic and Statistical Analysis","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-04-29","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4409948913","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16050358"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/info16050358","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16050358","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/5/358/pdf?version=1745910856","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/5/358/pdf?version=1745910856","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5115815195","display_name":"Imran Mirza","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Imran Mirza","raw_affiliation_strings":["Emerald School, 3600 Central Parkway, Dublin, CA 94568, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Emerald School, 3600 Central Parkway, Dublin, CA 94568, USA","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101499071","display_name":"Akbar Anbar Jafari","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6633-9204"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I56085075","display_name":"University of Tartu","ror":"https://ror.org/03z77qz90","country_code":"EE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I56085075"]}],"countries":["EE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Akbar Anbar Jafari","raw_affiliation_strings":["iCV Lab, Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, 51009 Tartu, Estonia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"iCV Lab, Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, 51009 Tartu, Estonia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I56085075"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102725423","display_name":"Cagr\u0131 Ozc\u0131nar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5606-8552"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I56085075","display_name":"University of Tartu","ror":"https://ror.org/03z77qz90","country_code":"EE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I56085075"]}],"countries":["EE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Cagri Ozcinar","raw_affiliation_strings":["iCV Lab, Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, 51009 Tartu, Estonia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"iCV Lab, Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, 51009 Tartu, Estonia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I56085075"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005605270","display_name":"Gholamreza Anbarjafari","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8460-5717"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I153821248","display_name":"Estonian Business School","ror":"https://ror.org/04e67ap71","country_code":"EE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I153821248"]}],"countries":["EE"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Gholamreza Anbarjafari","raw_affiliation_strings":["3S Holding, 62220 Tartu, Estonia","Department of Digitalisation & Data, Estonian Business School, A. Lauteri 3, 10114 Tallinn, Estonia","PwC Advisory, It\u00e4merentori 2, 00180 Helsinki, Finland"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8460-5717","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"3S Holding, 62220 Tartu, Estonia","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Digitalisation & Data, Estonian Business School, A. Lauteri 3, 10114 Tallinn, Estonia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I153821248"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"PwC Advisory, It\u00e4merentori 2, 00180 Helsinki, Finland","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5005605270"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I153821248"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":12.4656,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":6,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.98275768,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"16","issue":"5","first_page":"358","last_page":"358"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12262","display_name":"Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection","score":0.9812999963760376,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12262","display_name":"Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection","score":0.9812999963760376,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13910","display_name":"Computational and Text Analysis Methods","score":0.9501000046730042,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3300","display_name":"General Social Sciences"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistical-analysis","display_name":"Statistical analysis","score":0.5149458050727844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gender-bias","display_name":"Gender bias","score":0.4670127034187317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.4641488790512085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.4421142339706421},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.44014424085617065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/econometrics","display_name":"Econometrics","score":0.4302576780319214},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.3425794839859009},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-science","display_name":"Data science","score":0.34148815274238586},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.23677119612693787},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/social-psychology","display_name":"Social psychology","score":0.23376166820526123}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2986587452","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q938438","display_name":"Statistical analysis","level":2,"score":0.5149458050727844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2983427547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q93200","display_name":"Gender bias","level":2,"score":0.4670127034187317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.4641488790512085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.4421142339706421},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.44014424085617065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149782125","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160039","display_name":"Econometrics","level":1,"score":0.4302576780319214},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.3425794839859009},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.34148815274238586},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.23677119612693787},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.23376166820526123}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/info16050358","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16050358","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/5/358/pdf?version=1745910856","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:0238faa9a9254ef6885fd749b6e0fe94","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/0238faa9a9254ef6885fd749b6e0fe94","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Information, Vol 16, Iss 5, p 358 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/info16050358","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16050358","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/5/358/pdf?version=1745910856","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4409948913.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4409948913.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":30,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1995875735","https://openalex.org/W3021159925","https://openalex.org/W3207316473","https://openalex.org/W3212244639","https://openalex.org/W4229367922","https://openalex.org/W4280599741","https://openalex.org/W4285210452","https://openalex.org/W4380353763","https://openalex.org/W4385574250","https://openalex.org/W4387994739","https://openalex.org/W4389519898","https://openalex.org/W4390355332","https://openalex.org/W4393213892","https://openalex.org/W4394947904","https://openalex.org/W4396667188","https://openalex.org/W4396788662","https://openalex.org/W4398186377","https://openalex.org/W4400585758","https://openalex.org/W4401386758","https://openalex.org/W4401857670","https://openalex.org/W4402372001","https://openalex.org/W4402670268","https://openalex.org/W4403488230","https://openalex.org/W4406458080","https://openalex.org/W4407690577","https://openalex.org/W6739901393","https://openalex.org/W6803757056","https://openalex.org/W6852874933","https://openalex.org/W6859477064","https://openalex.org/W6869753673"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3215672432","https://openalex.org/W1922851888","https://openalex.org/W2406961220","https://openalex.org/W2046260256","https://openalex.org/W4232468313","https://openalex.org/W2526717048","https://openalex.org/W3214485701","https://openalex.org/W4391677502","https://openalex.org/W4242249046","https://openalex.org/W4240106746"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Large":[0],"language":[1,7],"models":[2],"(LLMs)":[3],"have":[4],"revolutionized":[5],"natural":[6],"processing":[8],"across":[9],"diverse":[10],"domains,":[11],"yet":[12],"they":[13],"also":[14],"raise":[15],"critical":[16],"fairness":[17],"and":[18,47,69,78,94,121,132,153,173,193],"ethical":[19],"concerns,":[20],"particularly":[21],"regarding":[22],"gender":[23,36,52,106,159],"bias.":[24],"In":[25,125],"this":[26],"study,":[27],"we":[28],"conduct":[29],"a":[30,60],"systematic,":[31],"mathematically":[32],"grounded":[33],"investigation":[34],"of":[35,63],"bias":[37,84],"in":[38],"four":[39],"leading":[40],"LLMs\u2014GPT-4o,":[41],"Gemini":[42,127],"1.5":[43,128],"Pro,":[44,129],"Sonnet":[45,130],"3.5,":[46,131],"LLaMA":[48,133],"3.1:8b\u2014by":[49],"evaluating":[50],"the":[51,164],"distributions":[53],"produced":[54],"when":[55],"generating":[56],"\u201cperfect":[57],"personas\u201d":[58],"for":[59,167],"wide":[61],"range":[62],"occupational":[64,105],"roles":[65,111],"spanning":[66],"healthcare,":[67],"engineering,":[68],"professional":[70],"services.":[71],"Leveraging":[72],"standardized":[73],"prompts,":[74],"controlled":[75],"experimental":[76],"settings,":[77],"repeated":[79],"trials,":[80],"our":[81],"methodology":[82],"quantifies":[83],"against":[85],"an":[86],"ideal":[87],"uniform":[88],"distribution":[89],"using":[90],"rigorous":[91],"statistical":[92],"measures":[93],"information-theoretic":[95],"metrics.":[96],"Our":[97],"results":[98],"reveal":[99],"marked":[100],"discrepancies:":[101],"GPT-4o":[102],"exhibits":[103],"pronounced":[104],"segregation,":[107],"disproportionately":[108],"linking":[109],"healthcare":[110],"to":[112,119,177],"female":[113,137],"identities":[114],"while":[115],"assigning":[116],"male":[117],"labels":[118],"engineering":[120],"physically":[122],"demanding":[123],"positions.":[124],"contrast,":[126],"3.1:8b":[134],"predominantly":[135],"favor":[136],"assignments,":[138],"albeit":[139],"with":[140],"less":[141],"job-specific":[142],"precision.":[143],"These":[144],"findings":[145],"demonstrate":[146],"how":[147],"architectural":[148],"decisions,":[149],"training":[150],"data":[151],"composition,":[152],"token":[154],"embedding":[155],"strategies":[156],"critically":[157],"influence":[158],"representation.":[160],"The":[161],"study":[162],"underscores":[163],"urgent":[165],"need":[166],"inclusive":[168],"datasets,":[169],"advanced":[170],"bias-mitigation":[171],"techniques,":[172],"continuous":[174],"model":[175],"audits":[176],"develop":[178],"AI":[179],"systems":[180],"that":[181],"are":[182],"not":[183],"only":[184],"free":[185],"from":[186],"stereotype":[187],"perpetuation":[188],"but":[189],"actively":[190],"promote":[191],"equitable":[192],"representative":[194],"information":[195],"processing.":[196]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
