{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4409213759","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16040294","title":"Detecting Driver Drowsiness Using Hybrid Facial Features and Ensemble Learning","display_name":"Detecting Driver Drowsiness Using Hybrid Facial Features and Ensemble Learning","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-04-07","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4409213759","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16040294"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/info16040294","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16040294","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/4/294/pdf?version=1744009654","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/4/294/pdf?version=1744009654","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103652824","display_name":"Changbiao Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8096-0033"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I10535382","display_name":"Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications","ror":"https://ror.org/03dgaqz26","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I10535382"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Changbiao Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8096-0033","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I10535382"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006410199","display_name":"Wenhao Huang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I10535382","display_name":"Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications","ror":"https://ror.org/03dgaqz26","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I10535382"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Wenhao Huang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9339-4219","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I10535382"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Jiao Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1506-6892"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I10535382","display_name":"Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications","ror":"https://ror.org/03dgaqz26","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I10535382"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jiao Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1506-6892","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I10535382"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100383607","display_name":"Lang Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7273-3615"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I10535382","display_name":"Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications","ror":"https://ror.org/03dgaqz26","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I10535382"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lang Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I10535382"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5006410199"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I10535382"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":2.5223,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.8766036,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":91,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"16","issue":"4","first_page":"294","last_page":"294"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11373","display_name":"Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11373","display_name":"Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12006","display_name":"Ergonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders","score":0.98089998960495,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12496","display_name":"Color perception and design","score":0.9409000277519226,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6093775033950806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5978257060050964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ensemble-learning","display_name":"Ensemble learning","score":0.5480780601501465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.5003223419189453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.36571836471557617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.3317793011665344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/speech-recognition","display_name":"Speech recognition","score":0.32237347960472107}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6093775033950806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5978257060050964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45942800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245652","display_name":"Ensemble learning","level":2,"score":0.5480780601501465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.5003223419189453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.36571836471557617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.3317793011665344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28490314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189436","display_name":"Speech recognition","level":1,"score":0.32237347960472107}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/info16040294","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16040294","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/4/294/pdf?version=1744009654","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:23b7db43e4504d1991397f1a0d6fa1e6","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/23b7db43e4504d1991397f1a0d6fa1e6","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Information, Vol 16, Iss 4, p 294 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/info16040294","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/info16040294","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/16/4/294/pdf?version=1744009654","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219776","display_name":"Information","issn_l":"2078-2489","issn":["2078-2489"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4409213759.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":92,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1498436455","https://openalex.org/W1890200061","https://openalex.org/W1975938786","https://openalex.org/W1978431198","https://openalex.org/W2025623975","https://openalex.org/W2029772767","https://openalex.org/W2032977109","https://openalex.org/W2035217620","https://openalex.org/W2035422567","https://openalex.org/W2036147779","https://openalex.org/W2069484217","https://openalex.org/W2088115584","https://openalex.org/W2101956459","https://openalex.org/W2132417262","https://openalex.org/W2136848157","https://openalex.org/W2139838138","https://openalex.org/W2172136076","https://openalex.org/W2240936544","https://openalex.org/W2295598076","https://openalex.org/W2346607917","https://openalex.org/W2513317220","https://openalex.org/W2581145574","https://openalex.org/W2604772469","https://openalex.org/W2605351369","https://openalex.org/W2734901527","https://openalex.org/W2735688622","https://openalex.org/W2789261132","https://openalex.org/W2793667632","https://openalex.org/W2827727045","https://openalex.org/W2883790098","https://openalex.org/W2884735806","https://openalex.org/W2894818097","https://openalex.org/W2903158943","https://openalex.org/W2910005613","https://openalex.org/W2911964244","https://openalex.org/W2915317031","https://openalex.org/W2915964483","https://openalex.org/W2943512776","https://openalex.org/W2945504608","https://openalex.org/W2963163009","https://openalex.org/W2965235999","https://openalex.org/W2967815566","https://openalex.org/W3001630243","https://openalex.org/W3011438564","https://openalex.org/W3106596522","https://openalex.org/W3107551614","https://openalex.org/W3114396675","https://openalex.org/W3122259083","https://openalex.org/W3122582437","https://openalex.org/W3130409332","https://openalex.org/W3133223187","https://openalex.org/W3155738052","https://openalex.org/W3157028160","https://openalex.org/W3190565297","https://openalex.org/W3199443318","https://openalex.org/W3201553677","https://openalex.org/W3214017214","https://openalex.org/W4207012543","https://openalex.org/W4214718492","https://openalex.org/W4225636445","https://openalex.org/W4283014992","https://openalex.org/W4283278436","https://openalex.org/W4285606031","https://openalex.org/W4286579648","https://openalex.org/W4289278060","https://openalex.org/W4296902747","https://openalex.org/W4310441367","https://openalex.org/W4312242979","https://openalex.org/W4313241637","https://openalex.org/W4320063762","https://openalex.org/W4320802088","https://openalex.org/W4367627494","https://openalex.org/W4379931456","https://openalex.org/W4381185174","https://openalex.org/W4386156181","https://openalex.org/W4386939474","https://openalex.org/W4388784298","https://openalex.org/W4392088509","https://openalex.org/W4394824346","https://openalex.org/W4396980317","https://openalex.org/W4399495300","https://openalex.org/W4402976300","https://openalex.org/W4403509579","https://openalex.org/W4403531132","https://openalex.org/W4404402521","https://openalex.org/W4405115195","https://openalex.org/W4406270453","https://openalex.org/W6659553313","https://openalex.org/W6682267934","https://openalex.org/W6766206109","https://openalex.org/W6773356850","https://openalex.org/W6856689600"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3034338377","https://openalex.org/W2961085424","https://openalex.org/W4376643315","https://openalex.org/W4324137541","https://openalex.org/W2900445707","https://openalex.org/W4285741730","https://openalex.org/W1191482210","https://openalex.org/W4285046548","https://openalex.org/W3092276832","https://openalex.org/W4375951447"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Drowsiness":[0],"while":[1],"driving":[2],"poses":[3],"a":[4,60,101,154,197,220],"significant":[5],"risk":[6],"in":[7,48,207],"terms":[8],"of":[9,21,120,201,216],"road":[10,230],"safety,":[11],"making":[12],"effective":[13,32],"drowsiness":[14,35,84,102,165],"detection":[15,25,103],"systems":[16],"essential":[17],"for":[18,223],"the":[19,81,117,163,170,179,191,214],"prevention":[20],"accidents.":[22],"Facial":[23],"signal-based":[24],"methods":[26,58,71],"have":[27],"proven":[28],"to":[29,34,64,139,161,173,229],"be":[30],"an":[31,107],"approach":[33,115],"detection.":[36],"However,":[37],"they":[38],"bring":[39],"challenges":[40],"arising":[41],"from":[42,122,183],"inter-individual":[43],"differences":[44],"among":[45,92],"drivers.":[46,94],"Variations":[47],"facial":[49,78,90,112,125,185],"structure":[50],"necessitate":[51],"personalized":[52],"feature":[53,66],"extraction":[54,119],"thresholds,":[55],"yet":[56],"existing":[57],"apply":[59],"uniform":[61],"threshold,":[62],"leading":[63],"inaccurate":[65],"extraction.":[67],"Furthermore,":[68],"many":[69],"current":[70],"focus":[72],"on":[73,190],"only":[74],"one":[75],"or":[76],"two":[77],"regions,":[79],"overlooking":[80],"possibility":[82],"that":[83,105],"may":[85],"manifest":[86],"differently":[87],"across":[88],"different":[89,93],"areas":[91],"To":[95],"address":[96],"these":[97],"issues,":[98],"we":[99,168],"propose":[100],"method":[104,172,195],"combines":[106],"ensemble":[108,144],"model":[109,175],"with":[110,153],"hybrid":[111],"features.":[113],"This":[114],"enables":[116],"accurate":[118],"features":[121,182],"four":[123],"key":[124],"regions\u2014the":[126],"eye":[127],"region,":[128],"mouth":[129],"contour,":[130],"head":[131],"pose,":[132],"and":[133,150,177,188,226],"gaze":[134],"direction\u2014through":[135],"adaptive":[136],"threshold":[137],"correction":[138],"ensure":[140,174],"comprehensive":[141],"coverage.":[142],"An":[143],"model,":[145],"combining":[146],"Random":[147],"Forest,":[148],"XGBoost,":[149],"Multilayer":[151],"Perceptron":[152],"soft":[155],"voting":[156],"criterion,":[157],"is":[158],"then":[159],"employed":[160],"classify":[162],"drivers\u2019":[164],"state.":[166],"Additionally,":[167],"use":[169],"SHAP":[171],"explainability":[176],"analyze":[178],"correlations":[180],"between":[181],"various":[184],"regions.":[186],"Trained":[187],"tested":[189],"UTA-RLDD":[192],"dataset,":[193],"our":[194,217],"achieves":[196],"video":[198],"accuracy":[199],"(VA)":[200],"86.52%,":[202],"outperforming":[203],"similar":[204],"techniques":[205],"introduced":[206],"recent":[208],"years.":[209],"The":[210],"interpretability":[211],"analysis":[212],"demonstrates":[213],"value":[215],"approach,":[218],"offering":[219],"valuable":[221],"reference":[222],"future":[224],"research":[225],"contributing":[227],"significantly":[228],"safety.":[231]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
