{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7153098888","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi15040162","title":"Progressive Reinforcement Learning for Point-Feature Label Placement in Map Annotation","display_name":"Progressive Reinforcement Learning for Point-Feature Label Placement in Map Annotation","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-04-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7153098888","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi15040162"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/ijgi15040162","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi15040162","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/15/4/162/pdf?version=1775740749","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764431341","display_name":"ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information","issn_l":"2220-9964","issn":["2220-9964"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/15/4/162/pdf?version=1775740749","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5048914614","display_name":"Wen Cao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2182-7819"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I92092256","display_name":"Huanghe Science and Technology College","ror":"https://ror.org/008p6rr25","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I92092256"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wen Cao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Huanghe University of Science and Technology, Zhengzhou 450063, China","Zhengzhou Zhonghe Jing Xuan Information Technology Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450000, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2182-7819","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Huanghe University of Science and Technology, Zhengzhou 450063, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I92092256"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Zhengzhou Zhonghe Jing Xuan Information Technology Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450000, China","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5068137141","display_name":"Yinbao Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I38877650","display_name":"Zhengzhou University","ror":"https://ror.org/04ypx8c21","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I38877650"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yinbao Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Geoscience and Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Geoscience and Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I38877650"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128072019","display_name":"Runsheng LI","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I236156700","display_name":"ZhengZhou Shengda University Of Economics, Business & Management","ror":"https://ror.org/0415fce48","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I236156700"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Runsheng Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Zhengzhou Shengda University of Economics, Business & Management, Zhengzhou 451191, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7130-4752","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Zhengzhou Shengda University of Economics, Business & Management, Zhengzhou 451191, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I236156700"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5042354165","display_name":"Liqiu Ren","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210163234","display_name":"Combined Arms Academy of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation","ror":"https://ror.org/0567jx130","country_code":"RU","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210163234"]}],"countries":["RU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Liqiu Ren","raw_affiliation_strings":["61206 Troops, Beijing 100043, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"61206 Troops, Beijing 100043, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210163234"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5133328650","display_name":"He Chen","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I92092256","display_name":"Huanghe Science and Technology College","ror":"https://ror.org/008p6rr25","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I92092256"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"He Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Huanghe University of Science and Technology, Zhengzhou 450063, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Huanghe University of Science and Technology, Zhengzhou 450063, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I92092256"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5128072019"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I236156700"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.41363574,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"15","issue":"4","first_page":"162","last_page":"162"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11596","display_name":"Constraint Satisfaction and Optimization","score":0.21969999372959137,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11596","display_name":"Constraint Satisfaction and Optimization","score":0.21969999372959137,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10799","display_name":"Data Visualization and Analytics","score":0.07609999924898148,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12292","display_name":"Graph Theory and Algorithms","score":0.06430000066757202,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.7789999842643738},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/simulated-annealing","display_name":"Simulated annealing","score":0.5023000240325928},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adaptability","display_name":"Adaptability","score":0.4124000072479248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/process","display_name":"Process (computing)","score":0.38920000195503235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/metaheuristic","display_name":"Metaheuristic","score":0.3797000050544739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/genetic-programming","display_name":"Genetic programming","score":0.3596999943256378},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/learning-classifier-system","display_name":"Learning classifier system","score":0.3528999984264374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/flexibility","display_name":"Flexibility (engineering)","score":0.35179999470710754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/genetic-algorithm","display_name":"Genetic algorithm","score":0.3517000079154968},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/margin","display_name":"Margin (machine learning)","score":0.35100001096725464}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.7789999842643738},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7171000242233276},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6001999974250793},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5069000124931335},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126980161","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863783","display_name":"Simulated annealing","level":2,"score":0.5023000240325928},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177606310","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5674297","display_name":"Adaptability","level":2,"score":0.4124000072479248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98045186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205663","display_name":"Process (computing)","level":2,"score":0.38920000195503235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C109718341","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1385229","display_name":"Metaheuristic","level":2,"score":0.3797000050544739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110332635","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q629498","display_name":"Genetic programming","level":2,"score":0.3596999943256378},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199190896","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3509276","display_name":"Learning classifier system","level":3,"score":0.3528999984264374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780598303","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65921492","display_name":"Flexibility (engineering)","level":2,"score":0.35179999470710754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8880873","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187787","display_name":"Genetic algorithm","level":2,"score":0.3517000079154968},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C774472","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6760393","display_name":"Margin (machine learning)","level":2,"score":0.35100001096725464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C164752517","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5570875","display_name":"Global optimization","level":2,"score":0.33959999680519104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127705205","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5748245","display_name":"Heuristics","level":2,"score":0.3391000032424927},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C22367795","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7625208","display_name":"Structured prediction","level":2,"score":0.32850000262260437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779530757","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1207505","display_name":"Quality (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.32510000467300415},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2164484","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5170150","display_name":"Core (optical fiber)","level":2,"score":0.32359999418258667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.31940001249313354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C135320971","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1868524","display_name":"Local search (optimization)","level":2,"score":0.3174000084400177},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74750220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2662197","display_name":"Differential evolution","level":2,"score":0.29809999465942383},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780791683","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q846785","display_name":"Action (physics)","level":2,"score":0.29600000381469727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112972136","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7595718","display_name":"Stability (learning theory)","level":2,"score":0.29330000281333923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126661757","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4925641","display_name":"Random search","level":2,"score":0.28760001063346863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776321320","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q857525","display_name":"Annotation","level":2,"score":0.2831000089645386},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125583679","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q755673","display_name":"Search algorithm","level":2,"score":0.26510000228881836},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77967617","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4677561","display_name":"Active learning (machine learning)","level":2,"score":0.2630999982357025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137836250","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q984063","display_name":"Optimization problem","level":2,"score":0.25870001316070557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776135515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17143721","display_name":"Regularization (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.25540000200271606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124681953","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q339062","display_name":"Decomposition","level":2,"score":0.25099998712539673}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/ijgi15040162","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi15040162","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/15/4/162/pdf?version=1775740749","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764431341","display_name":"ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information","issn_l":"2220-9964","issn":["2220-9964"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:6570edc3c1204df58a8673a12efce76a","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/6570edc3c1204df58a8673a12efce76a","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, Vol 15, Iss 4, p 162 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/ijgi15040162","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi15040162","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/15/4/162/pdf?version=1775740749","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764431341","display_name":"ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information","issn_l":"2220-9964","issn":["2220-9964"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.7971903681755066,"display_name":"Reduced inequalities","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7796696841","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"41901378","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7153098888.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7153098888.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"In":[0],"the":[1,6,16,77,101,109,119,131,145,152,186,208,234],"era":[2],"of":[3,9,19,76,229,236],"information":[4],"explosion,":[5],"effective":[7],"configuration":[8],"labels":[10],"on":[11,196],"maps":[12],"is":[13,36],"crucial":[14],"for":[15,100,180],"rapid":[17],"comprehension":[18],"information.":[20],"The":[21,106],"point-feature":[22,102],"label":[23,103,110],"placement":[24,104,111,231],"problem,":[25],"particularly":[26],"in":[27,66,144,151,227,246],"large-scale":[28,197],"and":[29,49,73,80,159,174,190,203,225,233,244,249],"high-density":[30,248],"scenarios":[31],"with":[32],"spatial":[33,78],"mutual-exclusion":[34,79],"constraints,":[35],"a":[37,92,114,134,163],"classic":[38],"NP-hard":[39],"discrete":[40],"optimization":[41],"challenge.":[42],"Existing":[43],"metaheuristic":[44],"algorithms":[45],"(e.g.,":[46],"Simulated":[47,218],"Annealing":[48],"Genetic":[50,220],"Algorithm)":[51],"often":[52],"struggle":[53],"to":[54,60,63,148,155],"achieve":[55],"high-quality":[56],"global":[57,157],"layouts":[58],"due":[59],"their":[61],"propensity":[62],"become":[64],"trapped":[65],"local":[67,160],"optima,":[68],"inefficient":[69],"random":[70],"point-selection":[71],"processes,":[72],"inadequate":[74],"modeling":[75],"blocking":[81],"constraints":[82],"between":[83],"labels.":[84,239],"To":[85],"address":[86],"these":[87],"limitations,":[88],"this":[89],"paper":[90],"proposes":[91],"Progressive":[93],"Reinforcement":[94,120],"Learning":[95,121],"(PRL)":[96],"algorithm":[97,107,210],"specifically":[98],"tailored":[99],"problem.":[105],"models":[108],"process":[112],"as":[113],"sequential":[115],"decision-making":[116],"problem":[117],"within":[118],"framework,":[122],"optimized":[123],"through":[124],"agent\u2013environment":[125],"interaction.":[126],"Its":[127],"core":[128],"design":[129],"comprises":[130],"following:":[132],"(1)":[133],"staircase-like":[135],"policy":[136],"learning":[137],"mechanism":[138],"that":[139,207],"shifts":[140],"from":[141],"\u201cbroad":[142],"exploration":[143],"early":[146],"stage":[147],"precise":[149],"exploitation":[150],"later":[153],"stage\u201d":[154],"balance":[156],"search":[158],"optimization;":[161],"(2)":[162],"data":[164],"mining-based":[165],"Intelligent":[166],"Action":[167],"Screening":[168],"(IAS)":[169],"mechanism,":[170],"which":[171],"dynamically":[172],"identifies":[173],"prioritizes":[175],"\u201chigh-value":[176],"action":[177],"points\u201d":[178],"critical":[179],"improving":[181],"layout":[182],"quality":[183,232],"by":[184],"constructing":[185],"\u201cContribution":[187,191],"Decline":[188],"Degree\u201d":[189,193],"Support":[192],"metrics.":[194],"Experiments":[195],"real-world":[198],"POI":[199],"datasets":[200],"(10,000,":[201],"20,000,":[202],"32,312":[204],"points)":[205],"demonstrate":[206],"proposed":[209],"significantly":[211],"outperforms":[212],"13":[213],"state-of-the-art":[214],"comparative":[215],"algorithms,":[216],"including":[217],"Annealing,":[219],"Algorithm,":[221],"Differential":[222],"Evolution,":[223],"POPMUSIC,":[224],"DBSCAN,":[226],"terms":[228],"both":[230],"number":[235],"successfully":[237],"placed":[238],"It":[240],"exhibits":[241],"remarkable":[242],"adaptability":[243],"competitiveness":[245],"handling":[247],"complex":[250],"scenarios.":[251]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2026-04-11T00:00:00"}
