{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7127453129","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020080","title":"LoRa/LoRaWAN Time Synchronization: A Comprehensive Analysis, Performance Evaluation, and Compensation of Frame Timestamping","display_name":"LoRa/LoRaWAN Time Synchronization: A Comprehensive Analysis, Performance Evaluation, and Compensation of Frame Timestamping","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-02","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7127453129","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020080"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi18020080","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020080","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/18/2/80/pdf?version=1770038947","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/18/2/80/pdf?version=1770038947","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007335960","display_name":"Stefano Rinaldi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7300-1053"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79940851","display_name":"University of Brescia","ror":"https://ror.org/02q2d2610","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Stefano Rinaldi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7300-1053","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039992041","display_name":"Elia Mondini","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79940851","display_name":"University of Brescia","ror":"https://ror.org/02q2d2610","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Elia Mondini","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5078251454","display_name":"P. Ferrari","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79940851","display_name":"University of Brescia","ror":"https://ror.org/02q2d2610","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Paolo Ferrari","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6349-4410","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5041547095","display_name":"A. Flammini","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79940851","display_name":"University of Brescia","ror":"https://ror.org/02q2d2610","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alessandra Flammini","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2046-0720","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5076825230","display_name":"Emiliano Sisinni","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5012-443X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79940851","display_name":"University of Brescia","ror":"https://ror.org/02q2d2610","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Emiliano Sisinni","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5012-443X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79940851"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1782},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1782},"fwci":7.042,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9569375,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"18","issue":"2","first_page":"80","last_page":"80"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12079","display_name":"IoT Networks and Protocols","score":0.6416000127792358,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12079","display_name":"IoT Networks and Protocols","score":0.6416000127792358,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12216","display_name":"Network Time Synchronization Technologies","score":0.2953999936580658,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10326","display_name":"Indoor and Outdoor Localization Technologies","score":0.008700000122189522,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/oversampling","display_name":"Oversampling","score":0.8661999702453613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/baseband","display_name":"Baseband","score":0.6434999704360962},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/preamble","display_name":"Preamble","score":0.5605999827384949},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/chirp","display_name":"Chirp","score":0.47350001335144043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/jitter","display_name":"Jitter","score":0.4481000006198883},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/carrier-frequency-offset","display_name":"Carrier frequency offset","score":0.43869999051094055},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/synchronization","display_name":"Synchronization (alternating current)","score":0.43639999628067017},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/frequency-offset","display_name":"Frequency offset","score":0.420199990272522},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/offset","display_name":"Offset (computer science)","score":0.4101000130176544}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C197323446","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q331222","display_name":"Oversampling","level":3,"score":0.8661999702453613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8342000246047974},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C65165936","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q575784","display_name":"Baseband","level":3,"score":0.6434999704360962},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780691134","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1129448","display_name":"Preamble","level":3,"score":0.5605999827384949},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.5156000256538391},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132794960","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q27304","display_name":"Chirp","level":3,"score":0.47350001335144043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134652429","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1052698","display_name":"Jitter","level":2,"score":0.4481000006198883},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776108382","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25111451","display_name":"Carrier frequency offset","level":5,"score":0.43869999051094055},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778562939","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1298791","display_name":"Synchronization (alternating current)","level":3,"score":0.43639999628067017},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C49319798","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5502874","display_name":"Frequency offset","level":4,"score":0.420199990272522},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175291020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1156822","display_name":"Offset (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.4101000130176544},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C140779682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210868","display_name":"Sampling (signal processing)","level":3,"score":0.40709999203681946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.3928999900817871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780023022","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1338171","display_name":"Compensation (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.3824000060558319},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169334058","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q353292","display_name":"Additive white Gaussian noise","level":3,"score":0.36079999804496765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24326235","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126095","display_name":"Electronic engineering","level":1,"score":0.3346000015735626},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C57273362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q576722","display_name":"Decoding methods","level":2,"score":0.32120001316070557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105152959","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1074780","display_name":"Chirp spread spectrum","level":5,"score":0.2879999876022339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.273499995470047},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180611318","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7316902","display_name":"Retransmission","level":3,"score":0.2676999866962433},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163716315","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q901177","display_name":"Gaussian","level":2,"score":0.26249998807907104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779853468","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7662139","display_name":"Synchronism","level":3,"score":0.26109999418258667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187077762","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5036976","display_name":"Capture effect","level":4,"score":0.25929999351501465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56296756","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q840922","display_name":"Bit error rate","level":3,"score":0.25200000405311584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555944384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249","display_name":"Wireless","level":2,"score":0.25029999017715454}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi18020080","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020080","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/18/2/80/pdf?version=1770038947","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:7172edc942f446c9baa0e745224f171f","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/7172edc942f446c9baa0e745224f171f","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet, Vol 18, Iss 2, p 80 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi18020080","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18020080","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/18/2/80/pdf?version=1770038947","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G745372800","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"CUP D53D23016070001","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","display_name":"European Commission","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7127453129.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7127453129.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0],"paper":[1],"examines":[2],"precise":[3],"timestamping":[4,25,96,217],"of":[5,51,81,124,184],"LoRaWAN":[6],"messages":[7],"(particularly":[8],"beacons)":[9],"to":[10,109,168,223],"enable":[11],"wide-area":[12],"synchronization":[13,232],"for":[14,21,203,229],"end":[15],"devices":[16],"without":[17],"GNSS.":[18],"The":[19],"need":[20],"accuracy":[22],"demands":[23],"hardware-level":[24],"architectures,":[26],"possibly":[27],"using":[28],"time-domain":[29],"cross-correlation":[30],"(matched":[31],"filtering)":[32],"against":[33],"internally":[34],"generated":[35],"chirp":[36],"references.":[37],"Focusing":[38],"on":[39],"Time-of-Arrival":[40],"(TOA)":[41],"estimation":[42],"from":[43],"raw":[44],"IQ":[45],"samples,":[46],"the":[47,82,128,132,172,182],"authors":[48],"analyze":[49],"effects":[50],"non-idealities\u2014additive":[52],"white":[53],"Gaussian":[54],"noise":[55],"(AWGN),":[56],"Carrier":[57],"Frequency":[58,64],"Offset":[59,65],"(CFO),":[60],"Sampling":[61],"Phase":[62],"and":[63,67,70,78,92,112,126,159,164],"(SPO":[66],"SFO,":[68],"respectively),":[69],"radio":[71],"parameters":[72],"such":[73],"as":[74],"spreading":[75],"factor":[76],"(SF)":[77],"sampling":[79,103,154],"rate":[80],"baseband":[83],"signals.":[84],"A":[85],"MATLAB":[86],"(R2020)":[87],"simulation":[88],"mimics":[89],"preamble":[90],"detection":[91],"Start-of-Frame":[93],"Delimiter":[94],"(SFD)":[95],"while":[97],"sweeping":[98],"SF":[99,160,176],"(7,":[100],"9,":[101],"12),":[102],"rates":[104,155],"(0.25\u201310":[105],"MSa/s),":[106],"SNR":[107,158,165],"(\u221220":[108],"+20":[110],"dB),":[111],"CFO/SFO":[113],"offsets":[114],"(\u221210\u201310":[115],"ppm":[116,194],"frequency":[117],"deviation).":[118],"Errors":[119],"are":[120],"evaluated":[121],"in":[122,156,233],"terms":[123],"mean":[125],"dispersion,":[127],"latter":[129],"represented":[130],"by":[131],"P95\u2013P5":[133],"range":[134],"metric.":[135],"Results":[136],"show":[137],"that":[138],"oversampling":[139,224],"not":[140],"only":[141],"improves":[142],"temporal":[143],"resolution,":[144],"but":[145,225],"sub-microsecond":[146],"error":[147,169,191],"dispersion":[148],"can":[149,196,218],"be":[150],"achieved":[151],"with":[152],"high":[153],"favorable":[157],"cases.":[161],"Indeed,":[162],"SPO":[163],"greatly":[166],"contribute":[167],"dispersion.":[170],"On":[171],"other":[173],"hand,":[174],"higher":[175],"values":[177],"increase":[178],"correlation":[179],"robustness":[180],"at":[181],"cost":[183],"longer":[185],"chirps,":[186],"making":[187],"SFO":[188,195,227],"a":[189,212],"dominant":[190],"source;":[192],"\u00b110":[193],"induce":[197],"roughly":[198],"\u00b13":[199],"\u03bcs":[200],"SFD":[201],"bias":[202],"SF12.":[204],"CFO":[205],"largely":[206],"cancels":[207],"after":[208],"up-/down-chirp":[209],"averaging.":[210],"As":[211],"concluding":[213],"remark,":[214],"matched-filter":[215],"hardware":[216],"ensure":[219],"sub-\u03bcs":[220],"errors":[221],"thanks":[222],"requires":[226],"compensation":[228],"accurate":[230],"real-world":[231],"practice.":[234]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-07-23T08:03:31.855105","created_date":"2026-02-04T00:00:00"}