{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4415029240","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17100466","title":"Building Trust in Autonomous Aerial Systems: A Review of Hardware-Rooted Trust Mechanisms","display_name":"Building Trust in Autonomous Aerial Systems: A Review of Hardware-Rooted Trust Mechanisms","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-10-10","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4415029240","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17100466"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi17100466","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17100466","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/10/466/pdf?version=1760092121","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/10/466/pdf?version=1760092121","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5112909039","display_name":"S. Ahmad","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4181-6528"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I82284825","display_name":"Cranfield University","ror":"https://ror.org/05cncd958","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I82284825"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sagir Muhammad Ahmad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4181-6528","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82284825"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101430659","display_name":"Mohammad Samie","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8850-5606"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I82284825","display_name":"Cranfield University","ror":"https://ror.org/05cncd958","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I82284825"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mohammad Samie","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8850-5606","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82284825"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5029727932","display_name":"Barmak Honarvar Shakibaei Asli","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1519-9596"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I82284825","display_name":"Cranfield University","ror":"https://ror.org/05cncd958","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I82284825"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Barmak Honarvar Shakibaei Asli","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1519-9596","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82284825"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5029727932"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82284825"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":3.8114,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.94019553,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"17","issue":"10","first_page":"466","last_page":"466"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9915000200271606,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9915000200271606,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11133","display_name":"UAV Applications and Optimization","score":0.9710999727249146,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12122","display_name":"Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security","score":0.9695000052452087,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1708","display_name":"Hardware and Architecture"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-deployment","display_name":"Software deployment","score":0.822700023651123},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bridging","display_name":"Bridging (networking)","score":0.6805999875068665},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"Scalability","score":0.6606000065803528},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transformative-learning","display_name":"Transformative learning","score":0.527999997138977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/open-research","display_name":"Open research","score":0.41260001063346863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/work","display_name":"Work (physics)","score":0.3959999978542328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control","display_name":"Control (management)","score":0.37599998712539673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/system-deployment","display_name":"System deployment","score":0.3720000088214874}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8379999995231628},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.822700023651123},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.701200008392334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C174348530","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188635","display_name":"Bridging (networking)","level":2,"score":0.6805999875068665},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.6606000065803528},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70587473","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7834111","display_name":"Transformative learning","level":2,"score":0.527999997138977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778464652","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309849","display_name":"Open research","level":2,"score":0.41260001063346863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18762648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42213","display_name":"Work (physics)","level":2,"score":0.3959999978542328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.37599998712539673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81293917","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4189534","display_name":"System deployment","level":3,"score":0.3720000088214874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59519942","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q650665","display_name":"Drone","level":2,"score":0.35850000381469727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C527821871","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228502","display_name":"Access control","level":2,"score":0.3418999910354614},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.34060001373291016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776576444","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q303569","display_name":"Attack surface","level":2,"score":0.32170000672340393},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C29852176","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q373338","display_name":"Critical infrastructure","level":2,"score":0.3183000087738037},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C140547941","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7797194","display_name":"Threat model","level":2,"score":0.31299999356269836},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39217717","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1432354","display_name":"Hardware security module","level":3,"score":0.2696000039577484},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121822524","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5157582","display_name":"Computer security model","level":2,"score":0.26489999890327454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.2574000060558319},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37736160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1801315","display_name":"Adversarial system","level":2,"score":0.2531999945640564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.2529999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38369872","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7445009","display_name":"Security analysis","level":2,"score":0.2506999969482422}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi17100466","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17100466","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/10/466/pdf?version=1760092121","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:5f22a37bdd9a47c2905798e6ec5aeea7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/5f22a37bdd9a47c2905798e6ec5aeea7","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet, Vol 17, Iss 10, p 466 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi17100466","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17100466","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/10/466/pdf?version=1760092121","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4415029240.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4415029240.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":220,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2530881536","https://openalex.org/W2571149404","https://openalex.org/W2613927007","https://openalex.org/W2620996074","https://openalex.org/W2678587086","https://openalex.org/W2734879210","https://openalex.org/W2771894378","https://openalex.org/W2782556342","https://openalex.org/W2794691483","https://openalex.org/W2794842046","https://openalex.org/W2899516785","https://openalex.org/W2899737786","https://openalex.org/W2902759202","https://openalex.org/W2913096406","https://openalex.org/W2914086531","https://openalex.org/W2914600382","https://openalex.org/W2914764075","https://openalex.org/W2914859151","https://openalex.org/W2941049640","https://openalex.org/W2950771482","https://openalex.org/W2952001483","https://openalex.org/W2953718685","https://openalex.org/W2963154589","https://openalex.org/W2966996929","https://openalex.org/W2968162147","https://openalex.org/W2969691719","https://openalex.org/W2978626209","https://openalex.org/W2999467118","https://openalex.org/W3004468114","https://openalex.org/W3005519909","https://openalex.org/W3012182806","https://openalex.org/W3014523354","https://openalex.org/W3022619631","https://openalex.org/W3030859533","https://openalex.org/W3031161993","https://openalex.org/W3042756018","https://openalex.org/W3045506407","https://openalex.org/W3080962733","https://openalex.org/W3082565676","https://openalex.org/W3083298495","https://openalex.org/W3091796030","https://openalex.org/W3092163236","https://openalex.org/W3094312506","https://openalex.org/W3094316289","https://openalex.org/W3095844237","https://openalex.org/W3098650625","https://openalex.org/W3110047379","https://openalex.org/W3118203807","https://openalex.org/W3121813536","https://openalex.org/W3123297087","https://openalex.org/W3123318455","https://openalex.org/W3125616174","https://openalex.org/W3129749699","https://openalex.org/W3130791139","https://openalex.org/W3133177552","https://openalex.org/W3135305460","https://openalex.org/W3138755759","https://openalex.org/W3139511187","https://openalex.org/W3154279060","https://openalex.org/W3157894430","https://openalex.org/W3166468498","https://openalex.org/W3170099533","https://openalex.org/W3181167066","https://openalex.org/W3181872338","https://openalex.org/W3192510076","https://openalex.org/W3193967641","https://openalex.org/W3195539663","https://openalex.org/W3197053988","https://openalex.org/W3200667636","https://openalex.org/W3201909053","https://openalex.org/W3202448246","https://openalex.org/W3203516415","https://openalex.org/W3211335466","https://openalex.org/W3212885634","https://openalex.org/W3213553527","https://openalex.org/W3213806748","https://openalex.org/W3216514701","https://openalex.org/W3216767138","https://openalex.org/W4200201522","https://openalex.org/W4200323219","https://openalex.org/W4200372727","https://openalex.org/W4205289451","https://openalex.org/W4206423911","https://openalex.org/W4206438303","https://openalex.org/W4206566515","https://openalex.org/W4211218530","https://openalex.org/W4214742583","https://openalex.org/W4214918848","https://openalex.org/W4220961117","https://openalex.org/W4220975874","https://openalex.org/W4226398874","https://openalex.org/W4226427184","https://openalex.org/W4280543295","https://openalex.org/W4280610169","https://openalex.org/W4283461961","https://openalex.org/W4285112734","https://openalex.org/W4285167163","https://openalex.org/W4285262189","https://openalex.org/W4290716241","https://openalex.org/W4293547972","https://openalex.org/W4295260660","https://openalex.org/W4296193912","https://openalex.org/W4296241600","https://openalex.org/W4296705186","https://openalex.org/W4304140744","https://openalex.org/W4304957530","https://openalex.org/W4306796170","https://openalex.org/W4307176625","https://openalex.org/W4308197791","https://openalex.org/W4309091802","https://openalex.org/W4309729315","https://openalex.org/W4309769551","https://openalex.org/W4311606846","https://openalex.org/W4312115559","https://openalex.org/W4312156178","https://openalex.org/W4312230597","https://openalex.org/W4312305649","https://openalex.org/W4312819401","https://openalex.org/W4312919841","https://openalex.org/W4316506832","https://openalex.org/W4316804695","https://openalex.org/W4317394413","https://openalex.org/W4318200116","https://openalex.org/W4318464221","https://openalex.org/W4318777538","https://openalex.org/W4319157919","https://openalex.org/W4323311411","https://openalex.org/W4324386613","https://openalex.org/W4327954479","https://openalex.org/W4361023858","https://openalex.org/W4366134577","https://openalex.org/W4367052462","https://openalex.org/W4376644581","https://openalex.org/W4376873376","https://openalex.org/W4378800985","https://openalex.org/W4379143281","https://openalex.org/W4380048835","https://openalex.org/W4380364516","https://openalex.org/W4381188146","https://openalex.org/W4382050699","https://openalex.org/W4382790294","https://openalex.org/W4383553490","https://openalex.org/W4383957453","https://openalex.org/W4385380676","https://openalex.org/W4385754024","https://openalex.org/W4385804802","https://openalex.org/W4385900995","https://openalex.org/W4385980805","https://openalex.org/W4386215236","https://openalex.org/W4386326439","https://openalex.org/W4386484980","https://openalex.org/W4387187174","https://openalex.org/W4387212461","https://openalex.org/W4387824644","https://openalex.org/W4387907213","https://openalex.org/W4388106054","https://openalex.org/W4388226526","https://openalex.org/W4388233292","https://openalex.org/W4388505193","https://openalex.org/W4389192393","https://openalex.org/W4389208581","https://openalex.org/W4390494361","https://openalex.org/W4390951782","https://openalex.org/W4391621128","https://openalex.org/W4391697032","https://openalex.org/W4391971937","https://openalex.org/W4392171167","https://openalex.org/W4392231678","https://openalex.org/W4392667165","https://openalex.org/W4392797726","https://openalex.org/W4393010253","https://openalex.org/W4393271406","https://openalex.org/W4393385245","https://openalex.org/W4394684836","https://openalex.org/W4394913747","https://openalex.org/W4394989939","https://openalex.org/W4394994356","https://openalex.org/W4395676344","https://openalex.org/W4396763273","https://openalex.org/W4396831127","https://openalex.org/W4396904211","https://openalex.org/W4398782119","https://openalex.org/W4399049663","https://openalex.org/W4399054960","https://openalex.org/W4399130501","https://openalex.org/W4399490978","https://openalex.org/W4400423338","https://openalex.org/W4400573619","https://openalex.org/W4400727516","https://openalex.org/W4400925865","https://openalex.org/W4400976751","https://openalex.org/W4401344781","https://openalex.org/W4401613288","https://openalex.org/W4402121883","https://openalex.org/W4402159757","https://openalex.org/W4402381620","https://openalex.org/W4403291154","https://openalex.org/W4403687407","https://openalex.org/W4403826512","https://openalex.org/W4403955621","https://openalex.org/W4405527509","https://openalex.org/W4406421230","https://openalex.org/W4406800969","https://openalex.org/W4406856735","https://openalex.org/W4406918931","https://openalex.org/W4406947724","https://openalex.org/W4407193728","https://openalex.org/W4407366161","https://openalex.org/W4407480110","https://openalex.org/W4407826192","https://openalex.org/W4407937562","https://openalex.org/W4408527467","https://openalex.org/W4408856948","https://openalex.org/W4408932410","https://openalex.org/W4409522876","https://openalex.org/W4409681965","https://openalex.org/W4410228310","https://openalex.org/W4410428528","https://openalex.org/W4410628584","https://openalex.org/W4412643863"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Unmanned":[0],"aerial":[1,135],"vehicles":[2],"(UAVs)":[3],"are":[4],"redefining":[5],"both":[6],"civilian":[7],"and":[8,17,30,51,68,85,95,107],"defense":[9],"operations,":[10],"with":[11,116],"swarm-based":[12],"architectures":[13],"unlocking":[14],"unprecedented":[15],"scalability":[16],"autonomy.":[18],"However,":[19],"these":[20],"advancements":[21],"introduce":[22],"critical":[23],"security":[24,40,127],"challenges,":[25],"particularly":[26],"in":[27,58,79,128],"location":[28],"verification":[29],"authentication.":[31],"This":[32],"review":[33,89],"provides":[34],"a":[35,73],"comprehensive":[36],"synthesis":[37],"of":[38,56,76,81,125,133],"hardware":[39],"primitives":[41],"(HSPs)\u2014including":[42],"Physical":[43],"Unclonable":[44],"Functions":[45],"(PUFs),":[46],"Trusted":[47],"Platform":[48],"Modules":[49],"(TPMs),":[50],"blockchain-integrated":[52],"frameworks\u2014as":[53],"foundational":[54],"enablers":[55],"trust":[57],"UAV":[59],"ecosystems.":[60],"We":[61],"systematically":[62],"analyze":[63],"communication":[64],"architectures,":[65],"cybersecurity":[66],"vulnerabilities,":[67],"deployment":[69],"constraints,":[70],"followed":[71],"by":[72],"comparative":[74],"evaluation":[75],"HSP-based":[77],"techniques":[78],"terms":[80],"energy":[82],"efficiency,":[83],"scalability,":[84],"operational":[86],"resilience.":[87],"The":[88],"further":[90],"identifies":[91],"unresolved":[92],"research":[93],"gaps":[94],"highlights":[96],"transformative":[97],"trends":[98],"such":[99],"as":[100],"AI-augmented":[101],"environmental":[102],"PUFs,":[103],"post-quantum":[104],"secure":[105,109],"primitives,":[106],"RISC-V-based":[108],"control":[110],"systems.":[111],"By":[112],"bridging":[113],"current":[114],"limitations":[115],"emerging":[117],"innovations,":[118],"this":[119],"work":[120],"underscores":[121],"the":[122,130],"pivotal":[123],"role":[124],"hardware-rooted":[126],"shaping":[129],"next":[131],"generation":[132],"autonomous":[134],"networks.":[136]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}