{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4411802988","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17070288","title":"Empirical Investigation on Practical Robustness of Keystroke Recognition Using WiFi Sensing for Future IoT Applications","display_name":"Empirical Investigation on Practical Robustness of Keystroke Recognition Using WiFi Sensing for Future IoT Applications","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-06-27","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4411802988","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17070288"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi17070288","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17070288","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/7/288/pdf?version=1751031168","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/7/288/pdf?version=1751031168","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5031006917","display_name":"Haoming Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-4847-0476"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Haoming Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007229567","display_name":"Aryan Sharma","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8692-3380"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Aryan Sharma","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cyber Security Cooperative Research Centre, Kingston, ACT 2600, Australia","School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cyber Security Cooperative Research Centre, Kingston, ACT 2600, Australia","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100770198","display_name":"Deepak Mishra","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3225-6495"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Deepak Mishra","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5031507494","display_name":"Aruna Seneviratne","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6894-7987"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Aruna Seneviratne","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5028116210","display_name":"Eliathamby Ambikairajah","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4673-6534"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Eliathamby Ambikairajah","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5100770198"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.22834277,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"17","issue":"7","first_page":"288","last_page":"288"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11800","display_name":"User Authentication and Security Systems","score":0.9991999864578247,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11800","display_name":"User Authentication and Security Systems","score":0.9991999864578247,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11398","display_name":"Hand Gesture Recognition Systems","score":0.9939000010490417,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10326","display_name":"Indoor and Outdoor Localization Technologies","score":0.9933000206947327,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.9204879999160767},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.7856999635696411},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/internet-of-things","display_name":"Internet of Things","score":0.576812744140625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/keystroke-dynamics","display_name":"Keystroke dynamics","score":0.5287254452705383},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/empirical-research","display_name":"Empirical research","score":0.5085142850875854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/keystroke-logging","display_name":"Keystroke logging","score":0.4929022789001465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/embedded-system","display_name":"Embedded system","score":0.3919299244880676},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.3895290791988373},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.3823511004447937},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.33278393745422363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human\u2013computer-interaction","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","score":0.32680854201316833}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.9204879999160767},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.7856999635696411},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81860439","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q251212","display_name":"Internet of Things","level":2,"score":0.576812744140625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79540074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3269465","display_name":"Keystroke dynamics","level":4,"score":0.5287254452705383},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120936955","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2155640","display_name":"Empirical research","level":2,"score":0.5085142850875854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C161615301","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309396","display_name":"Keystroke logging","level":2,"score":0.4929022789001465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149635348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193040","display_name":"Embedded system","level":1,"score":0.3919299244880676},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3895290791988373},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3823511004447937},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.33278393745422363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.32680854201316833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C4957475","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q242186","display_name":"S/KEY","level":3,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55493867","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7094","display_name":"Biochemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104317684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187","display_name":"Gene","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111472728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9471","display_name":"Epistemology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C109297577","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161157","display_name":"Password","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi17070288","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17070288","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/7/288/pdf?version=1751031168","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:7510ed37bd8c4a5b8c27c58caa521a90","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/7510ed37bd8c4a5b8c27c58caa521a90","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet, Vol 17, Iss 7, p 288 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi17070288","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17070288","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/7/288/pdf?version=1751031168","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320337300","display_name":"Office of National Intelligence","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4411802988.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4411802988.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":36,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2095396347","https://openalex.org/W2467585892","https://openalex.org/W2484238174","https://openalex.org/W2534482106","https://openalex.org/W2592884824","https://openalex.org/W2794843057","https://openalex.org/W2884645961","https://openalex.org/W2897935807","https://openalex.org/W2908737503","https://openalex.org/W2952065976","https://openalex.org/W2980021985","https://openalex.org/W2981892815","https://openalex.org/W3003251380","https://openalex.org/W3093247745","https://openalex.org/W3127077674","https://openalex.org/W3129209929","https://openalex.org/W3151208681","https://openalex.org/W3177877905","https://openalex.org/W3196221233","https://openalex.org/W3199025503","https://openalex.org/W4210780207","https://openalex.org/W4214864804","https://openalex.org/W4220896090","https://openalex.org/W4291711278","https://openalex.org/W4322627157","https://openalex.org/W4324094620","https://openalex.org/W4366966561","https://openalex.org/W4386555034","https://openalex.org/W4393028218","https://openalex.org/W4398762422","https://openalex.org/W4402553509","https://openalex.org/W4405907816","https://openalex.org/W6790221371","https://openalex.org/W6801010343","https://openalex.org/W6801431118","https://openalex.org/W6867953741"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2155670618","https://openalex.org/W2052279280","https://openalex.org/W2159333170","https://openalex.org/W2031617473","https://openalex.org/W4244802227","https://openalex.org/W1573560902","https://openalex.org/W4224061638","https://openalex.org/W2906096565","https://openalex.org/W2888741745","https://openalex.org/W3169822312"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"widespread":[1],"use":[2],"of":[3,61,80,105,167,203,251],"WiFi":[4,25,48,81,177,230],"Internet-of-Things":[5],"(IoT)":[6],"devices":[7],"has":[8,180,240],"rendered":[9],"them":[10],"valuable":[11],"tools":[12],"for":[13,53,186,205,210],"detecting":[14,84,196],"information":[15],"about":[16],"the":[17,44,78,103,154,165,168,206,215,244,248],"physical":[18,32],"environment.":[19],"Recent":[20],"studies":[21],"have":[22],"demonstrated":[23],"that":[24,149],"Channel":[26],"State":[27],"Information":[28],"(CSI)":[29],"can":[30,65,109],"detect":[31],"events":[33],"like":[34],"movement,":[35],"occupancy":[36],"increases,":[37],"and":[38,128,138,208,247],"gestures.":[39],"This":[40],"paper":[41],"empirically":[42],"investigates":[43],"conditions":[45],"under":[46],"which":[47],"sensing":[49,178,231,252],"technology":[50,179],"remains":[51],"effective":[52,233],"keystroke":[54],"detection.":[55],"To":[56],"achieve":[57],"this":[58],"timely":[59],"goal":[60],"assessing":[62],"whether":[63],"it":[64,239],"raise":[66],"any":[67],"privacy":[68],"concerns,":[69],"experiments":[70],"are":[71],"conducted":[72],"using":[73,115,225],"commodity":[74],"hardware":[75],"to":[76,150,222,243],"predict":[77],"accuracy":[79,114,141,202],"CSI":[82],"in":[83,95,182,234],"keys":[85],"pressed":[86],"on":[87],"a":[88,100,106,116,126],"keyboard.":[89],"Our":[90],"novel":[91],"results":[92],"show":[93,176],"that,":[94],"an":[96,200],"ideal":[97],"setting":[98],"with":[99,112,136],"robotic":[101],"arm,":[102],"position":[104],"specific":[107],"key":[108,127],"be":[110,162,172],"predicted":[111],"99%":[113],"simple":[117],"machine":[118],"learning":[119],"classifier.":[120],"Furthermore,":[121],"human":[122],"finger":[123],"localisation":[124],"over":[125],"actual":[129],"key-press":[130],"recognition":[131,185],"is":[132,193,218,232],"also":[133],"successfully":[134],"achieved,":[135],"94%":[137,204],"89%":[139],"reduced":[140],"values,":[142],"respectively.":[143],"Moreover,":[144],"our":[145],"detailed":[146],"investigation":[147],"reveals":[148],"ensure":[151],"high":[152],"accuracy,":[153],"gap":[155],"distance":[156],"between":[157],"each":[158],"test":[159,169],"object":[160],"must":[161],"substantial,":[163],"while":[164],"size":[166],"group":[170],"should":[171],"limited.":[173],"Finally,":[174],"we":[175],"limitations":[181,241],"small-scale":[183],"gesture":[184],"generic":[187],"settings":[188],"where":[189],"proper":[190],"device":[191,245],"positioning":[192],"crucial.":[194],"Specifically,":[195],"keyed":[197],"words":[198],"achieves":[199],"overall":[201],"forefinger":[207],"87%":[209],"multiple":[211],"fingers":[212],"when":[213,224],"only":[214],"right":[216],"hand":[217],"used.":[219],"Accuracy":[220],"drops":[221],"56%":[223],"both":[226],"hands.":[227],"We":[228],"conclude":[229],"controlled":[235],"indoor":[236],"environments,":[237],"but":[238],"due":[242],"location":[246],"limited":[249],"granularity":[250],"objects.":[253]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-03-10T16:38:18.471706","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}