{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4392241415","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi16030082","title":"Multi-Level Split Federated Learning for Large-Scale AIoT System Based on Smart Cities","display_name":"Multi-Level Split Federated Learning for Large-Scale AIoT System Based on Smart Cities","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-02-28","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4392241415","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi16030082"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi16030082","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi16030082","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/16/3/82/pdf?version=1709125583","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/16/3/82/pdf?version=1709125583","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101642353","display_name":"Hanyue Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-8652-7913"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I146655781","display_name":"University of Liverpool","ror":"https://ror.org/04xs57h96","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I146655781"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I69356397","display_name":"Xi\u2019an Jiaotong-Liverpool University","ror":"https://ror.org/03zmrmn05","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I69356397"]}],"countries":["CN","GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hanyue Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK","School of AI and Advanced Computing, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou 215000, China","School of AI and Advanced Computing, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou 215000, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-8652-7913","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I146655781"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of AI and Advanced Computing, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou 215000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I69356397"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of AI and Advanced Computing, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou 215000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I69356397"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5111525101","display_name":"Kah Phooi Seng","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I160993911","display_name":"Queensland University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/03pnv4752","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I160993911"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I174025329","display_name":"University of the Sunshine Coast","ror":"https://ror.org/016gb9e15","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I174025329"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I69356397","display_name":"Xi\u2019an Jiaotong-Liverpool University","ror":"https://ror.org/03zmrmn05","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I69356397"]}],"countries":["AU","CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Kah Phooi Seng","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of AI and Advanced Computing, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou 215000, China","School of Computer Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia","School of Science, Technology and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Petrie, QLD 4502, Australia","School of AI and Advanced Computing, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou 215000, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of AI and Advanced Computing, Xi\u2019an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou 215000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I69356397"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I160993911"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Science, Technology and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Petrie, QLD 4502, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I174025329"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of AI and Advanced Computing, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou 215000, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I69356397"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5003757015","display_name":"Jeremy S. Smith","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0212-2365"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I146655781","display_name":"University of Liverpool","ror":"https://ror.org/04xs57h96","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I146655781"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jeremy Smith","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I146655781"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5073635669","display_name":"Li-Minn Ang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2402-7529"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I174025329","display_name":"University of the Sunshine Coast","ror":"https://ror.org/016gb9e15","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I174025329"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Li Minn Ang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Science, Technology and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Petrie, QLD 4502, Australia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Science, Technology and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Petrie, QLD 4502, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I174025329"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5111525101"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I160993911","https://openalex.org/I174025329","https://openalex.org/I69356397"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":5.035,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":16,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95673681,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"16","issue":"3","first_page":"82","last_page":"82"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13918","display_name":"Advanced Data and IoT Technologies","score":0.9839000105857849,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12702","display_name":"Brain Tumor Detection and Classification","score":0.960099995136261,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2808","display_name":"Neurology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.9131726026535034},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scale","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","score":0.5972126722335815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.367186963558197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/distributed-computing","display_name":"Distributed computing","score":0.3295232057571411},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cartography","display_name":"Cartography","score":0.09100261330604553}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.9131726026535034},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778755073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10858537","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","level":2,"score":0.5972126722335815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.367186963558197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120314980","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180634","display_name":"Distributed computing","level":1,"score":0.3295232057571411},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58640448","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42515","display_name":"Cartography","level":1,"score":0.09100261330604553},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi16030082","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi16030082","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/16/3/82/pdf?version=1709125583","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:RePEc:gam:jftint:v:16:y:2024:i:3:p:82-:d:1347948","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/16/3/82/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401271","display_name":"RePEc: Research Papers in Economics","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I77793887","host_organization_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I77793887"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:d0d91446f6a44912804c66ec7e4f4ba4","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/d0d91446f6a44912804c66ec7e4f4ba4","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet, Vol 16, Iss 3, p 82 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi16030082","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi16030082","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/16/3/82/pdf?version=1709125583","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9","display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","score":0.4099999964237213}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4392241415.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":39,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2112796928","https://openalex.org/W2541884796","https://openalex.org/W2794825826","https://openalex.org/W2977797911","https://openalex.org/W3006555759","https://openalex.org/W3018102029","https://openalex.org/W3045638580","https://openalex.org/W3047304572","https://openalex.org/W3086156262","https://openalex.org/W3102626224","https://openalex.org/W3102785203","https://openalex.org/W3105915864","https://openalex.org/W3133814152","https://openalex.org/W3181552969","https://openalex.org/W3203177227","https://openalex.org/W3214568394","https://openalex.org/W4210427676","https://openalex.org/W4212984905","https://openalex.org/W4214607237","https://openalex.org/W4224290572","https://openalex.org/W4224943538","https://openalex.org/W4225781833","https://openalex.org/W4226094645","https://openalex.org/W4226389760","https://openalex.org/W4246354725","https://openalex.org/W4283833110","https://openalex.org/W4285201591","https://openalex.org/W4290963548","https://openalex.org/W4296982580","https://openalex.org/W4312224516","https://openalex.org/W4313184755","https://openalex.org/W4313477469","https://openalex.org/W4316042121","https://openalex.org/W4378697336","https://openalex.org/W4378697396","https://openalex.org/W4384159558","https://openalex.org/W4386858694","https://openalex.org/W4387501624","https://openalex.org/W6775817643"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2748952813","https://openalex.org/W2390279801","https://openalex.org/W2358668433","https://openalex.org/W2376932109","https://openalex.org/W2001405890","https://openalex.org/W2382290278","https://openalex.org/W2478288626","https://openalex.org/W4391913857","https://openalex.org/W2350741829","https://openalex.org/W2530322880"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"In":[0],"the":[1,6,13,21,39,81,123,151,171,181],"context":[2],"of":[3,8,15,23,30,42,83,185],"smart":[4,189],"cities,":[5],"integration":[7],"artificial":[9],"intelligence":[10],"(AI)":[11],"and":[12,36,58,87,105,108,135,138,161,176,183],"Internet":[14],"Things":[16],"(IoT)":[17],"has":[18,77],"led":[19],"to":[20,32,54,130],"proliferation":[22],"AIoT":[24,114,186],"systems,":[25],"which":[26],"handle":[27],"vast":[28],"amounts":[29],"data":[31,55,118,193],"enhance":[33],"urban":[34],"infrastructure":[35],"services.":[37],"However,":[38],"collaborative":[40],"training":[41],"deep":[43],"learning":[44,74,85,89],"models":[45],"within":[46],"these":[47,69],"systems":[48,115,187],"encounters":[49],"significant":[50],"challenges,":[51],"chiefly":[52],"due":[53],"privacy":[56],"concerns":[57],"dealing":[59],"with":[60,116],"communication":[61,101],"latency":[62],"from":[63],"large-scale":[64],"IoT":[65,132],"devices.":[66],"To":[67],"address":[68],"issues,":[70],"multi-level":[71,96,152],"split":[72,84],"federated":[73,88],"(multi-level":[75],"SFL)":[76],"been":[78],"proposed,":[79],"merging":[80],"benefits":[82],"(SL)":[86],"(FL).":[90],"This":[91,168],"framework":[92],"introduces":[93],"a":[94],"novel":[95],"aggregation":[97],"architecture":[98,121],"that":[99,150],"reduces":[100],"delays,":[102],"enhances":[103],"scalability,":[104],"addresses":[106],"system":[107],"statistical":[109],"heterogeneity":[110],"inherent":[111],"in":[112,164,179,188],"large":[113],"non-IID":[117,166],"distributions.":[119],"The":[120],"leverages":[122],"Message":[124],"Queuing":[125],"Telemetry":[126],"Transport":[127],"(MQTT)":[128],"protocol":[129],"cluster":[131],"devices":[133],"geographically":[134],"employs":[136],"edge":[137],"fog":[139],"computing":[140],"layers":[141],"for":[142],"initial":[143],"model":[144,159],"parameter":[145],"aggregation.":[146],"Simulation":[147],"experiments":[148],"validate":[149],"SFL":[153,156],"outperforms":[154],"traditional":[155],"by":[157],"improving":[158],"accuracy":[160],"convergence":[162],"speed":[163],"large-scale,":[165],"environments.":[167],"paper":[169],"delineates":[170],"proposed":[172],"architecture,":[173],"its":[174,177],"workflow,":[175],"advantages":[178],"enhancing":[180],"robustness":[182],"scalability":[184],"cities":[190],"while":[191],"preserving":[192],"privacy.":[194]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":8}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
