{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3194674784","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23081080","title":"Using the Relative Entropy of Linguistic Complexity to Assess L2 Language Proficiency Development","display_name":"Using the Relative Entropy of Linguistic Complexity to Assess L2 Language Proficiency Development","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-08-20","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3194674784","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23081080","mag":"3194674784","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34441222"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/e23081080","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23081080","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/23/8/1080/pdf?version=1629940994","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","datacite","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/23/8/1080/pdf?version=1629940994","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5013248629","display_name":"Kun Sun","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9766-269X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I8087733","display_name":"University of T\u00fcbingen","ror":"https://ror.org/03a1kwz48","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I8087733"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Kun Sun","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Linguistics, University of T\u00fcbingen, 72074 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9766-269X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Linguistics, University of T\u00fcbingen, 72074 T\u00fcbingen, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8087733"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100324876","display_name":"Rong Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9251-3775"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I100066346","display_name":"University of Stuttgart","ror":"https://ror.org/04vnq7t77","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I100066346"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Rong Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Natural Language Processing, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Natural Language Processing, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I100066346"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5013248629","https://openalex.org/A5100324876"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I100066346","https://openalex.org/I8087733"],"apc_list":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2227},"apc_paid":{"value":1738,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":1874},"fwci":0.2605,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":7,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.64885534,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"23","issue":"8","first_page":"1080","last_page":"1080"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10320","display_name":"Neural Networks and Applications","score":0.9855999946594238,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10320","display_name":"Neural Networks and Applications","score":0.9855999946594238,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10820","display_name":"Fuzzy Logic and Control Systems","score":0.9560999870300293,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.940500020980835,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/trigram","display_name":"Trigram","score":0.7910944223403931},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6541528701782227},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.5584281086921692},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5274291634559631},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/grammar","display_name":"Grammar","score":0.4799266457557678},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/principle-of-maximum-entropy","display_name":"Principle of maximum entropy","score":0.47940894961357117},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/lexicon","display_name":"Lexicon","score":0.478265643119812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/entropy","display_name":"Entropy (arrow of time)","score":0.4653049111366272},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/linguistics","display_name":"Linguistics","score":0.423092782497406}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137546455","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3213474","display_name":"Trigram","level":2,"score":0.7910944223403931},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6541528701782227},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.5584281086921692},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5274291634559631},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26022165","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8091","display_name":"Grammar","level":2,"score":0.4799266457557678},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9679016","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1417473","display_name":"Principle of maximum entropy","level":2,"score":0.47940894961357117},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778121359","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8096","display_name":"Lexicon","level":2,"score":0.478265643119812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C106301342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4117933","display_name":"Entropy (arrow of time)","level":2,"score":0.4653049111366272},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.423092782497406},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":7,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/e23081080","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23081080","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/23/8/1080/pdf?version=1629940994","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:34441222","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34441222","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:71e233b9842a44199ca9c24504c0b1b2","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/71e233b9842a44199ca9c24504c0b1b2","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Entropy, Vol 23, Iss 8, p 1080 (2021)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:elib.uni-stuttgart.de:11682/12432","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:93-opus-ds-124321","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401556","display_name":"OPUS Publication Server of the University of Stuttgart (University of Stuttgart)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I100066346","host_organization_name":"University of Stuttgart","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I100066346"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1099-4300/23/8/1080/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/e23081080","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Entropy; Volume 23; Issue 8; Pages: 1080","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:8394672","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/8394672","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Entropy (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"doi:10.18419/opus-12413","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.18419/opus-12413","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407052998","display_name":"Universit\u00e4tsbibliothek Stuttgart","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Collection"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/e23081080","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23081080","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/23/8/1080/pdf?version=1629940994","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3979461329","display_name":"Wide Incremental learning with Discrimination nEtworks","funder_award_id":"742545","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338335","funder_display_name":"H2020 European Research Council"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321112","display_name":"Eberhard Karls Universit\u00e4t T\u00fcbingen","ror":"https://ror.org/03a1kwz48"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338335","display_name":"H2020 European Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/0472cxd90"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3194674784.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3194674784.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":65,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W123044583","https://openalex.org/W277336407","https://openalex.org/W622932930","https://openalex.org/W636189409","https://openalex.org/W794495026","https://openalex.org/W832920401","https://openalex.org/W1225653330","https://openalex.org/W1484934815","https://openalex.org/W1499669280","https://openalex.org/W1515085758","https://openalex.org/W1562283548","https://openalex.org/W1576116236","https://openalex.org/W1785976393","https://openalex.org/W1836814292","https://openalex.org/W1925606551","https://openalex.org/W1963558974","https://openalex.org/W1965555277","https://openalex.org/W1971020201","https://openalex.org/W1976538119","https://openalex.org/W1983810096","https://openalex.org/W1991768037","https://openalex.org/W1995875735","https://openalex.org/W2014078900","https://openalex.org/W2022432538","https://openalex.org/W2038306480","https://openalex.org/W2047880469","https://openalex.org/W2047957794","https://openalex.org/W2065799168","https://openalex.org/W2070580370","https://openalex.org/W2101714982","https://openalex.org/W2103693128","https://openalex.org/W2121884006","https://openalex.org/W2127746072","https://openalex.org/W2131940723","https://openalex.org/W2136701143","https://openalex.org/W2146950091","https://openalex.org/W2151773880","https://openalex.org/W2152516403","https://openalex.org/W2168029153","https://openalex.org/W2170936601","https://openalex.org/W2478170430","https://openalex.org/W2490397454","https://openalex.org/W2512700785","https://openalex.org/W2526517594","https://openalex.org/W2598862120","https://openalex.org/W2605719446","https://openalex.org/W2769429915","https://openalex.org/W2783230554","https://openalex.org/W2789762904","https://openalex.org/W2790130598","https://openalex.org/W2795747917","https://openalex.org/W2805577724","https://openalex.org/W2811507150","https://openalex.org/W2891711846","https://openalex.org/W2901102126","https://openalex.org/W2933587272","https://openalex.org/W2950005233","https://openalex.org/W2953368978","https://openalex.org/W2970579897","https://openalex.org/W3006224918","https://openalex.org/W3110699972","https://openalex.org/W3150584212","https://openalex.org/W4249224151","https://openalex.org/W4251663551","https://openalex.org/W6752867117"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2011383762","https://openalex.org/W2048414027","https://openalex.org/W2033737867","https://openalex.org/W2024119624","https://openalex.org/W1875133464","https://openalex.org/W2126623367","https://openalex.org/W2387363840","https://openalex.org/W32588857","https://openalex.org/W2970690932","https://openalex.org/W2110715801"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0,75],"study":[1,104],"applies":[2],"relative":[3,45,135,155],"entropy":[4,156],"in":[5,83,152,160,183],"naturalistic":[6],"large-scale":[7],"corpus":[8,128],"to":[9,27,32,60,69,112,129,149],"calculate":[10],"the":[11,34,80,84,106,114,125,132,138,141,150,181],"difference":[12],"among":[13,40],"L2":[14,42,63,90,117,127,162,184],"(second":[15],"language)":[16],"learners":[17,64,91],"at":[18,65,71],"different":[19,41],"levels.":[20],"We":[21],"chose":[22],"lemma,":[23],"token,":[24],"POS-trigram,":[25],"conjunction":[26],"represent":[28],"lexicon":[29],"and":[30,56,97,173,179],"grammar":[31],"detect":[33],"patterns":[35],"of":[36,86,100,109,134],"language":[37,88,186],"proficiency":[38,163],"development":[39],"groups":[43],"using":[44],"entropy.":[46,136],"The":[47],"results":[48,133,139],"show":[49,145],"that":[50,82],"information":[51],"distribution":[52],"discrimination":[53],"regarding":[54],"lexical":[55],"grammatical":[57],"differences":[58,118],"continues":[59],"increase":[61],"from":[62,140],"a":[66,72,94],"lower":[67],"level":[68],"those":[70],"higher":[73],"level.":[74],"result":[76],"is":[77],"consistent":[78],"with":[79,131],"assumption":[81],"course":[85],"second":[87],"acquisition,":[89],"develop":[92],"towards":[93],"more":[95],"complex":[96],"diverse":[98],"use":[99],"language.":[101],"Meanwhile,":[102],"this":[103,166],"uses":[105],"statistics":[107],"method":[108],"time":[110],"series":[111],"process":[113],"data":[115],"on":[116],"yielded":[119],"by":[120],"traditional":[121,142,153],"frequency-based":[122],"methods":[123,143],"processing":[124],"same":[126],"compare":[130],"However,":[137],"rarely":[144],"regularity.":[146],"As":[147],"compared":[148],"algorithms":[151],"approaches,":[154],"performs":[157],"much":[158],"better":[159],"detecting":[161,178],"development.":[164],"In":[165],"sense,":[167],"we":[168],"have":[169],"developed":[170],"an":[171],"effective":[172],"practical":[174],"algorithm":[175],"for":[176],"stably":[177],"predicting":[180],"developments":[182],"learners\u2019":[185],"proficiency.":[187]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-07-30T17:31:21.811387","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
