{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3033896703","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e22060618","title":"A Gaussian-Distributed Quantum Random Number Generator Using Vacuum Shot Noise","display_name":"A Gaussian-Distributed Quantum Random Number Generator Using Vacuum Shot Noise","publication_year":2020,"publication_date":"2020-06-02","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3033896703","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e22060618","mag":"3033896703","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33286390"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/e22060618","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e22060618","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/22/6/618/pdf?version=1592797760","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/22/6/618/pdf?version=1592797760","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5113551203","display_name":"Min Huang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I20231570","display_name":"Peking University","ror":"https://ror.org/02v51f717","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I20231570"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Min Huang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronics, and Center for Quantum Information Technology, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronics, and Center for Quantum Information Technology, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20231570"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100324486","display_name":"Ziyang Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8343-8029"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I20231570","display_name":"Peking University","ror":"https://ror.org/02v51f717","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I20231570"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ziyang Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronics, and Center for Quantum Information Technology, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8343-8029","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronics, and Center for Quantum Information Technology, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20231570"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100341417","display_name":"Yichen Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6162-4066"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I139759216","display_name":"Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications","ror":"https://ror.org/04w9fbh59","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I139759216"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yichen Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["State Key Laboratory of Information Photonics and Optical Communications, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6162-4066","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Information Photonics and Optical Communications, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I139759216"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100717689","display_name":"Hong Guo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0644-6698"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I20231570","display_name":"Peking University","ror":"https://ror.org/02v51f717","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I20231570"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Hong Guo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronics, and Center for Quantum Information Technology, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronics, and Center for Quantum Information Technology, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20231570"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5100717689"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20231570"],"apc_list":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2227},"apc_paid":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2227},"fwci":1.3756,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":18,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.80403781,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"22","issue":"6","first_page":"618","last_page":"618"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10622","display_name":"Quantum Mechanics and Applications","score":0.9987999796867371,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3107","display_name":"Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10622","display_name":"Quantum Mechanics and Applications","score":0.9987999796867371,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3107","display_name":"Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10020","display_name":"Quantum Information and Cryptography","score":0.9983000159263611,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10682","display_name":"Quantum Computing Algorithms and Architecture","score":0.9958000183105469,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/randomness","display_name":"Randomness","score":0.7711501717567444},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/randomness-tests","display_name":"Randomness tests","score":0.6798540949821472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-number-generation","display_name":"Random number generation","score":0.6192405819892883},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gaussian","display_name":"Gaussian","score":0.5712661147117615},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.549475371837616},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolution-random-number-generator","display_name":"Convolution random number generator","score":0.48863059282302856},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.4881957173347473},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-key-distribution","display_name":"Quantum key distribution","score":0.4659045338630676},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-variable","display_name":"Random variable","score":0.3915576934814453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistical-physics","display_name":"Statistical physics","score":0.3850851058959961},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-function","display_name":"Random function","score":0.3806908428668976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.3648487329483032},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum","display_name":"Quantum","score":0.29149961471557617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.14411881566047668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics","display_name":"Physics","score":0.13135480880737305},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-mechanics","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","score":0.12502405047416687}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125112378","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176640","display_name":"Randomness","level":2,"score":0.7711501717567444},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18017163","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13560113","display_name":"Randomness tests","level":3,"score":0.6798540949821472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201866948","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228206","display_name":"Random number generation","level":2,"score":0.6192405819892883},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163716315","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q901177","display_name":"Gaussian","level":2,"score":0.5712661147117615},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.549475371837616},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116643974","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5166606","display_name":"Convolution random number generator","level":4,"score":0.48863059282302856},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.4881957173347473},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95466800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1027298","display_name":"Quantum key distribution","level":3,"score":0.4659045338630676},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C122123141","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176623","display_name":"Random variable","level":2,"score":0.3915576934814453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121864883","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q677916","display_name":"Statistical physics","level":1,"score":0.3850851058959961},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13929819","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176737","display_name":"Random function","level":3,"score":0.3806908428668976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.3648487329483032},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84114770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46344","display_name":"Quantum","level":2,"score":0.29149961471557617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.14411881566047668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.13135480880737305},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.12502405047416687}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/e22060618","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e22060618","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/22/6/618/pdf?version=1592797760","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:33286390","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33286390","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:a0390672103f4d808f6859f9eb0255a4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/a0390672103f4d808f6859f9eb0255a4","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Entropy, Vol 22, Iss 6, p 618 (2020)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1099-4300/22/6/618/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/e22060618","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:7517154","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/7517154","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Entropy (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/e22060618","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e22060618","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/22/6/618/pdf?version=1592797760","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G163713999","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"61531003","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G535502015","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"6141B08231115","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320328844","funder_display_name":"China Electronics Technology Group Corporation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320328844","display_name":"China Electronics Technology Group Corporation","ror":"https://ror.org/0098hst83"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3033896703.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3033896703.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":86,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W758803519","https://openalex.org/W1596382714","https://openalex.org/W1886859979","https://openalex.org/W1965612527","https://openalex.org/W1965736177","https://openalex.org/W1967864115","https://openalex.org/W1968881257","https://openalex.org/W1981007772","https://openalex.org/W1989029347","https://openalex.org/W1992457132","https://openalex.org/W1995274875","https://openalex.org/W1997976635","https://openalex.org/W2000305036","https://openalex.org/W2007607762","https://openalex.org/W2008187654","https://openalex.org/W2008818007","https://openalex.org/W2011021198","https://openalex.org/W2017068632","https://openalex.org/W2017636475","https://openalex.org/W2028815089","https://openalex.org/W2032406921","https://openalex.org/W2032589650","https://openalex.org/W2034377058","https://openalex.org/W2036268119","https://openalex.org/W2047307840","https://openalex.org/W2057392911","https://openalex.org/W2058302064","https://openalex.org/W2065883977","https://openalex.org/W2082730452","https://openalex.org/W2084499569","https://openalex.org/W2085520335","https://openalex.org/W2093419514","https://openalex.org/W2112757707","https://openalex.org/W2121174661","https://openalex.org/W2121213780","https://openalex.org/W2135328793","https://openalex.org/W2135830616","https://openalex.org/W2139423682","https://openalex.org/W2162404251","https://openalex.org/W2169485677","https://openalex.org/W2211675212","https://openalex.org/W2242705832","https://openalex.org/W2247946197","https://openalex.org/W2339460943","https://openalex.org/W2519738307","https://openalex.org/W2567715932","https://openalex.org/W2588420660","https://openalex.org/W2751499809","https://openalex.org/W2754819841","https://openalex.org/W2756443384","https://openalex.org/W2803223700","https://openalex.org/W2920671507","https://openalex.org/W2939642929","https://openalex.org/W2943707884","https://openalex.org/W2948602808","https://openalex.org/W2951159855","https://openalex.org/W2972041245","https://openalex.org/W2988683112","https://openalex.org/W3000532170","https://openalex.org/W3004357554","https://openalex.org/W3008629526","https://openalex.org/W3014677441","https://openalex.org/W3038067977","https://openalex.org/W3098019070","https://openalex.org/W3098066399","https://openalex.org/W3098184212","https://openalex.org/W3098285149","https://openalex.org/W3099708810","https://openalex.org/W3100789686","https://openalex.org/W3101128986","https://openalex.org/W3101352220","https://openalex.org/W3101846793","https://openalex.org/W3101869595","https://openalex.org/W3102101637","https://openalex.org/W3102753229","https://openalex.org/W3103953265","https://openalex.org/W3104023655","https://openalex.org/W3104029228","https://openalex.org/W3104074392","https://openalex.org/W3104747288","https://openalex.org/W3123997348","https://openalex.org/W4251428492","https://openalex.org/W4252276874","https://openalex.org/W4255375128","https://openalex.org/W6761956420","https://openalex.org/W6789860910"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4295788780","https://openalex.org/W3102296243","https://openalex.org/W1606748595","https://openalex.org/W3187895447","https://openalex.org/W2359339382","https://openalex.org/W2158367025","https://openalex.org/W2164713281","https://openalex.org/W2964148189","https://openalex.org/W3081190119","https://openalex.org/W3196486527"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Among":[0],"all":[1],"the":[2,36,74,77,81,93,106,119,126,135,144,153],"methods":[3],"of":[4,38,76,99,108,137],"extracting":[5],"randomness,":[6],"quantum":[7,19,45,56],"random":[8,20,57,65,112],"number":[9,21,58],"generators":[10],"are":[11],"promising":[12],"for":[13],"their":[14],"genuine":[15],"randomness.":[16],"However,":[17],"existing":[18],"generator":[22],"schemes":[23],"aim":[24],"at":[25],"generating":[26,62],"sequences":[27,66,120,146],"with":[28,129],"a":[29,43,54,87],"uniform":[30],"distribution,":[31],"which":[32,91],"may":[33],"not":[34],"meet":[35],"requirements":[37],"specific":[39],"applications":[40],"such":[41],"as":[42],"continuous-variable":[44],"key":[46],"distribution":[47,95,149],"system.":[48],"In":[49],"this":[50],"paper,":[51],"we":[52],"demonstrate":[53],"practical":[55,82],"generation":[59],"scheme":[60],"directly":[61],"Gaussian":[63,110,148],"distributed":[64,111],"based":[67],"on":[68],"measuring":[69],"vacuum":[70],"shot":[71],"noise.":[72],"Particularly,":[73],"impact":[75],"sampling":[78],"device":[79],"in":[80],"system":[83,128],"is":[84,102],"analyzed.":[85],"Furthermore,":[86],"related":[88],"post-processing":[89],"method,":[90],"maintains":[92],"fine":[94],"and":[96,139,150],"autocorrelation":[97],"properties":[98],"raw":[100],"data,":[101],"exploited":[103],"to":[104,114,122],"extend":[105],"precision":[107,132],"generated":[109,145],"numbers":[113],"over":[115],"20":[116],"bits,":[117],"making":[118],"possible":[121],"be":[123],"utilized":[124],"by":[125],"following":[127],"requiring":[130],"high":[131],"numbers.":[133],"Finally,":[134],"results":[136],"normality":[138],"randomness":[140,154],"tests":[141],"prove":[142],"that":[143],"satisfy":[147],"can":[151],"pass":[152],"testing":[155],"well.":[156]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-07-22T07:51:19.307946","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}