{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3021438558","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e22050533","title":"A Quantum Expectation Value Based Language Model with Application to Question Answering","display_name":"A Quantum Expectation Value Based Language Model with Application to Question Answering","publication_year":2020,"publication_date":"2020-05-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3021438558","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e22050533","mag":"3021438558","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33286305"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/e22050533","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e22050533","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/22/5/533/pdf?version=1590127274","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/22/5/533/pdf?version=1590127274","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102878523","display_name":"Qin Zhao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2175-1922"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204983213","display_name":"Harbin Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01yqg2h08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qin Zhao","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5024267456","display_name":"Chenguang Hou","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165932596","display_name":"National University of Singapore","ror":"https://ror.org/01tgyzw49","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chenguang Hou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Center for Remote Imaging, Sensing and Processing, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119076, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Center for Remote Imaging, Sensing and Processing, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119076, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101627926","display_name":"Changjian Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7352-9851"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204983213","display_name":"Harbin Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01yqg2h08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Changjian Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100364176","display_name":"Peng Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7786-8137"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Peng Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300050, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300050, China","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5018149714","display_name":"Ruifeng Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9885-2364"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204983213","display_name":"Harbin Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01yqg2h08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Ruifeng Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5018149714"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"],"apc_list":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2227},"apc_paid":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2227},"fwci":0.6702,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":10,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.76596796,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"22","issue":"5","first_page":"533","last_page":"533"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.998199999332428,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.998199999332428,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13083","display_name":"Advanced Text Analysis Techniques","score":0.9811999797821045,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11719","display_name":"Data Quality and Management","score":0.9786999821662903,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1803","display_name":"Management Science and Operations Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6003336310386658},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/interpretability","display_name":"Interpretability","score":0.5521596074104309},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/observable","display_name":"Observable","score":0.5236082673072815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hilbert-space","display_name":"Hilbert space","score":0.5059115290641785},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/density-matrix","display_name":"Density matrix","score":0.5051100850105286},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/povm","display_name":"POVM","score":0.49942517280578613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/soundness","display_name":"Soundness","score":0.4812888205051422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.34419843554496765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.33451852202415466},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum","display_name":"Quantum","score":0.328042596578598},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.32766851782798767},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/theoretical-computer-science","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","score":0.320246160030365},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-mechanics","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","score":0.20586782693862915},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-operation","display_name":"Quantum operation","score":0.17760711908340454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pure-mathematics","display_name":"Pure mathematics","score":0.13162970542907715},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics","display_name":"Physics","score":0.12191548943519592},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-dynamics","display_name":"Quantum dynamics","score":0.09694644808769226}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6003336310386658},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781067378","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17027399","display_name":"Interpretability","level":2,"score":0.5521596074104309},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C32848918","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q845789","display_name":"Observable","level":2,"score":0.5236082673072815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62799726","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190056","display_name":"Hilbert space","level":2,"score":0.5059115290641785},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56911000","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q831774","display_name":"Density matrix","level":3,"score":0.5051100850105286},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179957908","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q907206","display_name":"POVM","level":5,"score":0.49942517280578613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39920170","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q693083","display_name":"Soundness","level":2,"score":0.4812888205051422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.34419843554496765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.33451852202415466},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84114770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46344","display_name":"Quantum","level":2,"score":0.328042596578598},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.32766851782798767},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.320246160030365},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.20586782693862915},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43682372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7269080","display_name":"Quantum operation","level":4,"score":0.17760711908340454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202444582","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q837863","display_name":"Pure mathematics","level":1,"score":0.13162970542907715},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.12191548943519592},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15184713","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7269042","display_name":"Quantum dynamics","level":3,"score":0.09694644808769226},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":6,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/e22050533","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e22050533","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/22/5/533/pdf?version=1590127274","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:33286305","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33286305","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:scholarbank.nus.edu.sg:10635/196608","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/196608","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407052290","display_name":"National University of Singapore","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Scopus OA2020","raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:510ce8a26f98459e8712214c37542f0f","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/510ce8a26f98459e8712214c37542f0f","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Entropy, Vol 22, Iss 5, p 533 (2020)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:mdpi.com:/1099-4300/22/5/533/","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/e22050533","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400947","display_name":"MDPI (MDPI AG)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210097602","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (Switzerland)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097602"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:7517027","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/7517027","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Entropy (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/e22050533","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e22050533","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/22/5/533/pdf?version=1590127274","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8299999833106995,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4165806713","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"61632011","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6114143109","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"61876053","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335774","display_name":"Key Technologies Research and Development Program","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3021438558.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3021438558.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":38,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W120524294","https://openalex.org/W199424061","https://openalex.org/W590511346","https://openalex.org/W1485275430","https://openalex.org/W1500256440","https://openalex.org/W1525068081","https://openalex.org/W1563364586","https://openalex.org/W1591825359","https://openalex.org/W1787071328","https://openalex.org/W1926201870","https://openalex.org/W1966443646","https://openalex.org/W2028175314","https://openalex.org/W2070217890","https://openalex.org/W2087746031","https://openalex.org/W2093896185","https://openalex.org/W2137550045","https://openalex.org/W2137852732","https://openalex.org/W2160416736","https://openalex.org/W2170738476","https://openalex.org/W2173681125","https://openalex.org/W2185337446","https://openalex.org/W2251202616","https://openalex.org/W2251427843","https://openalex.org/W2251818205","https://openalex.org/W2264105282","https://openalex.org/W2337120330","https://openalex.org/W2339896096","https://openalex.org/W2407564601","https://openalex.org/W2740943156","https://openalex.org/W2756668352","https://openalex.org/W2784311771","https://openalex.org/W2889425359","https://openalex.org/W2937900489","https://openalex.org/W3104263599","https://openalex.org/W4211080241","https://openalex.org/W4244716531","https://openalex.org/W6667733676","https://openalex.org/W6765237052"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2259846855","https://openalex.org/W126818139","https://openalex.org/W2170875671","https://openalex.org/W2346982293","https://openalex.org/W54952072","https://openalex.org/W2064052496","https://openalex.org/W2263508770","https://openalex.org/W1987071664","https://openalex.org/W2045902774","https://openalex.org/W2327005831"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Quantum-inspired":[0],"language":[1],"models":[2],"have":[3,18],"been":[4,19],"introduced":[5],"to":[6,10,121],"Information":[7],"Retrieval":[8],"due":[9],"their":[11],"transparency":[12],"and":[13,82,130,144],"interpretability.":[14],"While":[15],"exciting":[16],"progresses":[17],"made,":[20],"current":[21],"studies":[22],"mainly":[23],"investigate":[24],"the":[25,77,100,110,122,128,134],"relationship":[26],"between":[27,102],"density":[28,49,72],"matrices":[29],"of":[30,34,53,114,137],"difference":[31],"sentence":[32],"subspaces":[33],"a":[35,43,47,60,96,103,115],"semantic":[36],"Hilbert":[37,40,79],"space.":[38],"The":[39],"space":[41],"as":[42,86,109],"whole":[44],"which":[45],"has":[46],"unique":[48,70],"matrix":[50,73],"is":[51,74,106],"lack":[52],"exploration.":[54],"In":[55,119],"this":[56,90,94],"paper,":[57],"we":[58],"propose":[59],"novel":[61],"Quantum":[62],"Expectation":[63],"Value":[64],"based":[65],"Language":[66],"Model":[67],"(QEV-LM).":[68],"A":[69],"shared":[71],"constructed":[75],"for":[76],"Semantic":[78],"Space.":[80],"Words":[81],"sentences":[83],"are":[84],"viewed":[85],"different":[87],"observables":[88],"in":[89],"quantum":[91,111],"model.":[92],"Under":[93],"background,":[95],"matching":[97],"score":[98],"describing":[99],"similarity":[101],"question-answer":[104,117],"pair":[105],"naturally":[107],"explained":[108],"expectation":[112],"value":[113],"joint":[116],"observable.":[118],"addition":[120],"theoretical":[123],"soundness,":[124],"experiment":[125],"results":[126],"on":[127],"TREC-QA":[129],"WIKIQA":[131],"datasets":[132],"demonstrate":[133],"computational":[135],"efficiency":[136],"our":[138],"proposed":[139],"model":[140],"with":[141],"excellent":[142],"performance":[143],"low":[145],"time":[146],"consumption.":[147]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-07-22T07:51:19.307946","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
