{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414981500","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography9040064","title":"Comparative Deep Learning-Based Side-Channel Analysis of an FPGA-Based CRYSTALS-Kyber NTT Accelerator","display_name":"Comparative Deep Learning-Based Side-Channel Analysis of an FPGA-Based CRYSTALS-Kyber NTT Accelerator","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-10-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414981500","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography9040064"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/cryptography9040064","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography9040064","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2410-387X/9/4/64/pdf?version=1759999836","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210223320","display_name":"Cryptography","issn_l":"2410-387X","issn":["2410-387X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cryptography","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2410-387X/9/4/64/pdf?version=1759999836","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5079330511","display_name":"Munkhbaatar Chinbat","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-4101-7269"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210156423","display_name":"National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture","ror":"https://ror.org/04c3j3t84","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210156423"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99065089","display_name":"Tsinghua University","ror":"https://ror.org/03cve4549","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Munkhbaatar Chinbat","raw_affiliation_strings":["Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Beijing 100084, China","School of Integrated Circuits, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-4101-7269","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Beijing 100084, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210156423"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Integrated Circuits, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5003264549","display_name":"Liji Wu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1318-6329"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210156423","display_name":"National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture","ror":"https://ror.org/04c3j3t84","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210156423"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99065089","display_name":"Tsinghua University","ror":"https://ror.org/03cve4549","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Liji Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Beijing 100084, China","School of Integrated Circuits, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Beijing 100084, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210156423"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Integrated Circuits, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5043412859","display_name":"Xiangmin Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210156423","display_name":"National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture","ror":"https://ror.org/04c3j3t84","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210156423"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99065089","display_name":"Tsinghua University","ror":"https://ror.org/03cve4549","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiangmin Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Beijing 100084, China","School of Integrated Circuits, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Beijing 100084, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210156423"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Integrated Circuits, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5104479074","display_name":"Yifan Yang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6868-1220"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210156423","display_name":"National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture","ror":"https://ror.org/04c3j3t84","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210156423"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99065089","display_name":"Tsinghua University","ror":"https://ror.org/03cve4549","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yifan Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Beijing 100084, China","School of Integrated Circuits, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Beijing National Research Center for Information Science and Technology, Beijing 100084, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210156423"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Integrated Circuits, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108273441","display_name":"Man Wei","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210089056","display_name":"Beijing Microelectronics Technology Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/007y7ej30","country_code":"CN","type":"other","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210089056"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210095923","display_name":"Tongfu Microelectronics (China)","ror":"https://ror.org/00yyjm707","country_code":"CN","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210095923"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Man Wei","raw_affiliation_strings":["Tongxin Microelectronics Co., Ltd., Beijing 100192, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Tongxin Microelectronics Co., Ltd., Beijing 100192, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210089056","https://openalex.org/I4210095923"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5003264549"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210156423","https://openalex.org/I99065089"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"fwci":2.0776,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.90338057,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"9","issue":"4","first_page":"64","last_page":"64"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10951","display_name":"Cryptographic Implementations and Security","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10951","display_name":"Cryptographic Implementations and Security","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11017","display_name":"Chaos-based Image/Signal Encryption","score":0.9984999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12122","display_name":"Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and Hardware Security","score":0.9927999973297119,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1708","display_name":"Hardware and Architecture"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.8222000002861023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.5473999977111816},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pairwise-comparison","display_name":"Pairwise comparison","score":0.48910000920295715},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hyperparameter","display_name":"Hyperparameter","score":0.45419999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.3919000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/offset","display_name":"Offset (computer science)","score":0.37540000677108765}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.8222000002861023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7056000232696533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7042999863624573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.5473999977111816},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184898388","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1435712","display_name":"Pairwise comparison","level":2,"score":0.48910000920295715},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8642999","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4171168","display_name":"Hyperparameter","level":2,"score":0.45419999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4066999852657318},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.3919000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175291020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1156822","display_name":"Offset (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.37540000677108765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2984842247","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep neural networks","level":3,"score":0.34619998931884766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.3107999861240387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.2815000116825104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51632099","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3985153","display_name":"Training set","level":2,"score":0.2671999931335449},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.2526000142097473}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/cryptography9040064","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography9040064","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2410-387X/9/4/64/pdf?version=1759999836","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210223320","display_name":"Cryptography","issn_l":"2410-387X","issn":["2410-387X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cryptography","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:455af3457d704ea6a8e3dc7129cee7c1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/455af3457d704ea6a8e3dc7129cee7c1","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Cryptography, Vol 9, Iss 4, p 64 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/cryptography9040064","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography9040064","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2410-387X/9/4/64/pdf?version=1759999836","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210223320","display_name":"Cryptography","issn_l":"2410-387X","issn":["2410-387X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cryptography","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322392","display_name":"Tsinghua University","ror":"https://ror.org/03cve4549"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4414981500.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4414981500.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":32,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1657240689","https://openalex.org/W2154909745","https://openalex.org/W2474114598","https://openalex.org/W2746796098","https://openalex.org/W2914572864","https://openalex.org/W2953355178","https://openalex.org/W2954019744","https://openalex.org/W2990306706","https://openalex.org/W3030231988","https://openalex.org/W3096110808","https://openalex.org/W3185075495","https://openalex.org/W3202257033","https://openalex.org/W3203012334","https://openalex.org/W3206225879","https://openalex.org/W3208177954","https://openalex.org/W3210769154","https://openalex.org/W3217272717","https://openalex.org/W4212770300","https://openalex.org/W4323320057","https://openalex.org/W4380080590","https://openalex.org/W4384009490","https://openalex.org/W4385575126","https://openalex.org/W4385835064","https://openalex.org/W4387807254","https://openalex.org/W4388960157","https://openalex.org/W4389160795","https://openalex.org/W4390603996","https://openalex.org/W4391326551","https://openalex.org/W4391770632","https://openalex.org/W4399767880","https://openalex.org/W4401568798","https://openalex.org/W4405441270"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Deep":[0],"learning-based":[1,88],"side-channel":[2,170],"analysis":[3,78],"is":[4,103],"one":[5],"of":[6,60,98,125],"the":[7,24,30,51,61,67,99,107,111,120],"most":[8],"effective":[9],"techniques":[10],"for":[11,29,66,114,144,150,156],"extracting":[12],"and":[13,42,116,152],"classifying":[14,95],"sensitive":[15],"information":[16],"from":[17],"a":[18,57,91],"target":[19,31],"device.":[20],"This":[21],"paper":[22,55],"demonstrates":[23],"best-performing":[25,86],"deep":[26,36,76,87,160],"learning":[27,37,77,161],"model":[28,89,121],"implementation":[32],"by":[33],"evaluating":[34],"various":[35],"architectures,":[38],"including":[39],"MLP,":[40],"CNN,":[41],"RNN,":[43],"while":[44,165],"systematically":[45],"optimizing":[46],"their":[47],"hyperparameters":[48],"to":[49,72,82,105,139,159],"achieve":[50],"best":[52],"performance.":[53],"The":[54,85,127],"uses":[56],"case":[58],"study":[59],"Number":[62],"Theoretic":[63],"Transform":[64],"accelerator":[65,113],"CRYSTALS-Kyber":[68],"key":[69,109],"encapsulation":[70],"mechanism":[71],"show":[73],"that":[74],"enhanced":[75],"can":[79],"be":[80],"used":[81,104],"break":[83],"security.":[84],"achieved":[90,122],"96.64%":[92],"accuracy":[93,124,168],"in":[94,169],"pairwise":[96],"coefficients":[97],"s":[100],"vector,":[101],"which":[102],"generate":[106],"secret":[108],"with":[110,135],"NTT":[112],"Kyber768":[115],"Kyber1024.":[117],"For":[118],"Kyber512,":[119],"an":[123],"95.71%.":[126],"proposed":[128],"approach":[129],"significantly":[130],"improves":[131],"average":[132],"training":[133],"efficiency,":[134],"POIs":[136],"achieving":[137],"up":[138],"1.45":[140],"times":[141,148,154],"faster":[142,149,155],"performance":[143],"MLP":[145],"models,":[146],"10.53":[147],"CNNs,":[151],"10.28":[153],"RNNs":[157],"compared":[158],"methods":[162],"without":[163],"POIs,":[164],"maintaining":[166],"high":[167],"analysis.":[171]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
