{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7140317762","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography10020021","title":"Homomorphic ReLU with Full-Domain Bootstrapping","display_name":"Homomorphic ReLU with Full-Domain Bootstrapping","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-24","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7140317762","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography10020021"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/cryptography10020021","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography10020021","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2410-387X/10/2/21/pdf?version=1774359427","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210223320","display_name":"Cryptography","issn_l":"2410-387X","issn":["2410-387X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cryptography","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2410-387X/10/2/21/pdf?version=1774359427","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100311199","display_name":"Yuqun Lin","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I150229711","display_name":"University of Electronic Science and Technology of China","ror":"https://ror.org/04qr3zq92","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I150229711"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuqun Lin","raw_affiliation_strings":["The School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-5751-3169","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I150229711"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5130556618","display_name":"Yi Huang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204983213","display_name":"Harbin Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01yqg2h08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yi Huang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5130609634","display_name":"Xiaomeng Tang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204983213","display_name":"Harbin Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01yqg2h08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiaomeng Tang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Jingjing Fan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3203-311X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I177725633","display_name":"Chinese University of Hong Kong","ror":"https://ror.org/00t33hh48","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I177725633"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204983213","display_name":"Harbin Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01yqg2h08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I889458895","display_name":"University of Hong Kong","ror":"https://ror.org/02zhqgq86","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I889458895"]}],"countries":["CN","HK"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Jingjing Fan","raw_affiliation_strings":["The School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China","The School of Computing and Data Science, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3203-311X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The School of Computing and Data Science, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I889458895","https://openalex.org/I177725633"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100461074","display_name":"Qian Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2679-8295"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I150229711","display_name":"University of Electronic Science and Technology of China","ror":"https://ror.org/04qr3zq92","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I150229711"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qifei Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["The School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I150229711"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5130558915","display_name":"Zoe-Lin Jiang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204983213","display_name":"Harbin Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01yqg2h08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zoe-Lin Jiang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8944-7444","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100430876","display_name":"Xi Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3415-5345"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I150229711","display_name":"University of Electronic Science and Technology of China","ror":"https://ror.org/04qr3zq92","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I150229711"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiaosong Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611731, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I150229711"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5121180240","display_name":"Junbin Fang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I159948400","display_name":"Jinan University","ror":"https://ror.org/02xe5ns62","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I159948400"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Junbin Fang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0730-8732","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I159948400"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":8,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177725633","https://openalex.org/I204983213","https://openalex.org/I889458895"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.58293918,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"10","issue":"2","first_page":"21","last_page":"21"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.7537000179290771,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.7537000179290771,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10951","display_name":"Cryptographic Implementations and Security","score":0.15199999511241913,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11693","display_name":"Cryptography and Residue Arithmetic","score":0.02329999953508377,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/homomorphic-encryption","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","score":0.7487000226974487},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bootstrapping","display_name":"Bootstrapping (finance)","score":0.6851999759674072},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mnist-database","display_name":"MNIST database","score":0.6539000272750854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ciphertext","display_name":"Ciphertext","score":0.5210000276565552},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/inference","display_name":"Inference","score":0.44780001044273376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/overhead","display_name":"Overhead (engineering)","score":0.4440000057220459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/integer","display_name":"Integer (computer science)","score":0.4023999869823456},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"Scalability","score":0.3959999978542328}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7537999749183655},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158338273","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2154943","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","level":3,"score":0.7487000226974487},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207609745","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4944086","display_name":"Bootstrapping (finance)","level":2,"score":0.6851999759674072},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190502265","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17069496","display_name":"MNIST database","level":3,"score":0.6539000272750854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C93974786","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1589480","display_name":"Ciphertext","level":3,"score":0.5210000276565552},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776214188","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q408386","display_name":"Inference","level":2,"score":0.44780001044273376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779960059","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7113681","display_name":"Overhead (engineering)","level":2,"score":0.4440000057220459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.43950000405311584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97137487","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q729138","display_name":"Integer (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.4023999869823456},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.3959999978542328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.3950999975204468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43521106","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2165493","display_name":"Pipeline (software)","level":2,"score":0.3869999945163727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.37860000133514404},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108010975","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q500094","display_name":"Pruning","level":2,"score":0.3528999984264374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.3005000054836273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.29910001158714294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45374587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12525525","display_name":"Computation","level":2,"score":0.28610000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56086750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6042592","display_name":"Integer programming","level":2,"score":0.2757999897003174},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77618280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155772","display_name":"Scheme (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.2558000087738037},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777210771","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4927124","display_name":"Block (permutation group theory)","level":2,"score":0.2554999887943268}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/cryptography10020021","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography10020021","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2410-387X/10/2/21/pdf?version=1774359427","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210223320","display_name":"Cryptography","issn_l":"2410-387X","issn":["2410-387X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cryptography","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:536f1356654e4eaa8c2365769a0a8302","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/536f1356654e4eaa8c2365769a0a8302","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Cryptography, Vol 10, Iss 2, p 21 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/cryptography10020021","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography10020021","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2410-387X/10/2/21/pdf?version=1774359427","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210223320","display_name":"Cryptography","issn_l":"2410-387X","issn":["2410-387X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cryptography","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.42067208886146545,"display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5985776429","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62272131","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7140317762.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7140317762.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Fully":[0],"homomorphic":[1,65,135,209],"encryption":[2],"(FHE)":[3],"offers":[4],"a":[5,34,59,81,89,201,205,226,241],"promising":[6],"solution":[7],"for":[8,244],"privacy-preserving":[9,216,245],"machine":[10,217],"learning":[11],"by":[12,158,171],"enabling":[13],"arbitrary":[14],"computations":[15],"on":[16,225],"encrypted":[17,222],"data.":[18],"However,":[19],"the":[20,27,121,143,164,168,230],"efficient":[21,64,208],"evaluation":[22,67],"of":[23,146,153,174],"non-linear":[24],"functions\u2014such":[25],"as":[26],"ReLU":[28,66,136,210],"activation":[29],"function":[30],"over":[31,68],"large":[32,69,90,122],"integers\u2014remains":[33],"major":[35],"obstacle":[36],"in":[37,50,215],"practical":[38],"deployments,":[39],"primarily":[40],"due":[41],"to":[42,77,177,191],"high":[43],"bootstrapping":[44,148,169],"overhead":[45],"and":[46,104,115,124,207,239],"limited":[47],"precision":[48],"support":[49],"existing":[51],"schemes.":[52],"In":[53],"this":[54],"paper,":[55],"we":[56,133],"propose":[57],"LargeIntReLU,":[58],"novel":[60],"framework":[61],"that":[62,87,163],"enables":[63],"integers":[70],"(7\u201311":[71],"bits)":[72],"via":[73],"full-domain":[74,138],"bootstrapping.":[75,118],"Central":[76],"our":[78,154,198],"approach":[79],"is":[80,156,213],"signed":[82,94],"digit":[83],"decomposition":[84,107],"algorithm,":[85],"SignedDecomp,":[86],"partitions":[88],"integer":[91,123],"ciphertext":[92],"into":[93],"6-bit":[95],"segments":[96],"using":[97],"three":[98],"new":[99],"low-level":[100],"primitives:":[101],"LeftShift,":[102],"HomMod,":[103],"CipherClean.":[105],"This":[106],"preserves":[108],"arithmetic":[109],"consistency,":[110],"avoids":[111],"cross-segment":[112],"carry":[113],"propagation,":[114],"allows":[116],"parallelized":[117],"By":[119],"segmenting":[120],"processing":[125],"each":[126],"chunk":[127],"independently":[128],"with":[129,137,229],"optimized":[130],"small-integer":[131],"bootstrapping,":[132,139],"achieve":[134],"which":[140,212],"significantly":[141],"reduces":[142,167],"total":[144],"number":[145],"sequential":[147],"operations":[149],"required.":[150],"The":[151],"security":[152],"scheme":[155],"guaranteed":[157],"TFHE.":[159],"Experimental":[160],"results":[161],"demonstrate":[162],"proposed":[165],"method":[166],"cost":[170],"an":[172,220],"average":[173],"28.58%":[175],"compared":[176],"state-of-the-art":[178],"approaches":[179],"while":[180],"maintaining":[181],"95.2%":[182],"accuracy.":[183],"With":[184],"execution":[185],"times":[186],"ranging":[187],"from":[188],"1.16":[189],"s":[190,193],"1.62":[192],"across":[194],"7\u201311":[195],"bit":[196],"integers,":[197],"work":[199],"bridges":[200],"critical":[202],"gap":[203],"toward":[204],"scalable":[206],"function,":[211],"useful":[214],"learning.":[218],"Furthermore,":[219],"end-to-end":[221],"inference":[223],"test":[224],"CNN":[227],"model":[228],"MNIST":[231],"dataset":[232],"confirms":[233],"its":[234],"practicality,":[235],"achieving":[236],"88.85%":[237],"accuracy":[238],"demonstrating":[240],"complete":[242],"pipeline":[243],"neural":[246],"network":[247],"evaluation.":[248]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2026-03-26T00:00:00"}
