{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7151876523","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers15040232","title":"Autoencoders in Natural Language Processing: A Comprehensive Review","display_name":"Autoencoders in Natural Language Processing: A Comprehensive Review","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-04-08","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7151876523","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers15040232"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/computers15040232","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers15040232","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210228075","display_name":"Computers","issn_l":"2073-431X","issn":["2073-431X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers15040232","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5120367295","display_name":"Moussa Redah","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-8495-7753"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I134085113","display_name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals","ror":"https://ror.org/03yez3163","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Moussa Redah","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information and Computer Science Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-8495-7753","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information and Computer Science Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062511117","display_name":"Wasfi G. Al-Khatib","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6760-3506"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I134085113","display_name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals","ror":"https://ror.org/03yez3163","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Wasfi G. Al-Khatib","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information and Computer Science Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia","Interdisciplinary Research Center for Intelligent Secure Systems (IRC-ISS), King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6760-3506","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information and Computer Science Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Interdisciplinary Research Center for Intelligent Secure Systems (IRC-ISS), King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5062511117","https://openalex.org/A5120367295"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I134085113"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.47460902,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"15","issue":"4","first_page":"232","last_page":"232"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.34049999713897705,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.34049999713897705,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10775","display_name":"Generative Adversarial Networks and Image Synthesis","score":0.1729000061750412,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13910","display_name":"Computational and Text Analysis Methods","score":0.093299999833107,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3300","display_name":"General Social Sciences"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/autoencoder","display_name":"Autoencoder","score":0.6949999928474426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/representation","display_name":"Representation (politics)","score":0.6618000268936157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature-learning","display_name":"Feature learning","score":0.578499972820282},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-understanding","display_name":"Natural language understanding","score":0.5059000253677368},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.4796000123023987},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language","display_name":"Natural language","score":0.460999995470047},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/probabilistic-logic","display_name":"Probabilistic logic","score":0.4494999945163727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.4219000041484833}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7215999960899353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7211999893188477},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C101738243","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q786435","display_name":"Autoencoder","level":3,"score":0.6949999928474426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776359362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2145286","display_name":"Representation (politics)","level":3,"score":0.6618000268936157},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59404180","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17013334","display_name":"Feature learning","level":2,"score":0.578499972820282},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.5177000164985657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779439875","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1078276","display_name":"Natural language understanding","level":3,"score":0.5059000253677368},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.4796000123023987},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.460999995470047},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C49937458","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2599292","display_name":"Probabilistic logic","level":2,"score":0.4494999945163727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.4219000041484833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.41920000314712524},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C168167062","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1117970","display_name":"Component (thermodynamics)","level":2,"score":0.4129999876022339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8038995","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1152135","display_name":"Unsupervised learning","level":2,"score":0.41019999980926514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39890363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36108","display_name":"Generative grammar","level":2,"score":0.40689998865127563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C171686336","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3532085","display_name":"Topic model","level":2,"score":0.3221000134944916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167966045","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5532625","display_name":"Generative model","level":3,"score":0.31929999589920044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184337299","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1437428","display_name":"Semantics (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.3140999972820282},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C114289077","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3284399","display_name":"Statistical model","level":2,"score":0.31049999594688416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776608160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4785462","display_name":"Natural (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.30970001220703125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2983448237","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1078276","display_name":"Language understanding","level":2,"score":0.2581000030040741}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/computers15040232","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers15040232","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210228075","display_name":"Computers","issn_l":"2073-431X","issn":["2073-431X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:43bca7c19c5146828122d0d43c5207bf","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/43bca7c19c5146828122d0d43c5207bf","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Computers, Vol 15, Iss 4, p 232 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/computers15040232","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers15040232","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210228075","display_name":"Computers","issn_l":"2073-431X","issn":["2073-431X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education","score":0.8150584101676941}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Autoencoder-based":[0],"models":[1,18,99],"have":[2,42,95],"become":[3],"a":[4,44,59,107,110,127,147,152],"fundamental":[5],"component":[6],"of":[7,62,65,76,109,155,169,176],"unsupervised":[8],"and":[9,36,54,68,73,88,121,142,159,167,181,196],"self-supervised":[10],"learning":[11,102,149,178],"in":[12,47,71,103,179],"natural":[13],"language":[14,79],"processing":[15],"(NLP),":[16],"enabling":[17],"to":[19,31,51],"learn":[20],"compact":[21],"latent":[22,194],"representations":[23],"through":[24],"input":[25],"reconstruction.":[26],"From":[27],"early":[28],"denoising":[29],"autoencoders":[30,34,125],"probabilistic":[32],"variational":[33,119],"(VAEs)":[35],"transformer-based":[37,123],"masked":[38,124],"autoencoding,":[39],"reconstruction-driven":[40],"objectives":[41,70],"played":[43],"significant":[45],"role":[46],"shaping":[48],"modern":[49,122],"approaches":[50],"text":[52,82],"representation":[53,90,101,199],"generation.":[55],"This":[56],"review":[57,112],"provides":[58],"comprehensive":[60],"analysis":[61,163],"the":[63,165,173],"evolution":[64],"autoencoder":[66,117],"architectures":[67],"training":[69,140,189],"NLP,":[72,104,180],"synthesizes":[74],"applications":[75],"VAEs":[77],"across":[78],"modeling,":[80,87],"controllable":[81],"generation,":[83],"machine":[84],"translation,":[85],"sentiment":[86],"multilingual":[89,198],"learning.":[91,200],"Although":[92],"previous":[93],"surveys":[94],"examined":[96],"deep":[97],"generative":[98],"or":[100],"there":[105],"remains":[106],"lack":[108],"unified":[111],"that":[113],"systematically":[114],"connects":[115],"classical":[116],"variants,":[118],"formulations,":[120],"within":[126],"single":[128],"conceptual":[129],"framework.":[130],"To":[131],"address":[132],"this":[133,135],"gap,":[134],"work":[136],"consolidates":[137],"architectural":[138],"developments,":[139],"objectives,":[141],"major":[143],"application":[144],"domains":[145],"under":[146],"reconstruction-based":[148],"perspective,":[150],"offering":[151],"structured":[153,193],"comparison":[154],"modeling":[156],"choices,":[157],"datasets,":[158],"evaluation":[160],"practices.":[161],"Our":[162],"highlights":[164],"strengths":[166],"limitations":[168],"existing":[170],"approaches,":[171],"discusses":[172],"ongoing":[174],"influence":[175],"autoencoder-style":[177],"outlines":[182],"future":[183],"research":[184],"directions":[185],"focused":[186],"on":[187],"improving":[188],"stability,":[190],"designing":[191],"more":[192],"spaces,":[195],"enhancing":[197]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-06-18T08:10:14.011955","created_date":"2026-04-09T00:00:00"}