{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4410966736","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14060212","title":"Pain Level Classification Using Eye-Tracking Metrics and Machine Learning Models","display_name":"Pain Level Classification Using Eye-Tracking Metrics and Machine Learning Models","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-05-30","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4410966736","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14060212"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/computers14060212","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14060212","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-431X/14/6/212/pdf?version=1748611528","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210228075","display_name":"Computers","issn_l":"2073-431X","issn":["2073-431X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-431X/14/6/212/pdf?version=1748611528","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5117451553","display_name":"Oussama El Othmani","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210155821","display_name":"Military Hospital of Tunis","ror":"https://ror.org/04n4f3r80","country_code":"TN","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210155821"]}],"countries":["TN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Oussama El Othmani","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Systems Department, Military Academy of Fondouk Jedid, Nabeul 8012, Tunisia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Systems Department, Military Academy of Fondouk Jedid, Nabeul 8012, Tunisia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210155821"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5036615160","display_name":"Sami Naouali","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0501-5581"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4626487","display_name":"King Faisal University","ror":"https://ror.org/00dn43547","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4626487"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sami Naouali","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Systems Department, College of Computer Science and Information Technology, King Faisal University, Al Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Systems Department, College of Computer Science and Information Technology, King Faisal University, Al Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4626487"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5117451553"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210155821"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.12230301,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":"6","first_page":"212","last_page":"212"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10429","display_name":"EEG and Brain-Computer Interfaces","score":0.9977999925613403,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10429","display_name":"EEG and Brain-Computer Interfaces","score":0.9977999925613403,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11707","display_name":"Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology","score":0.9850000143051147,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12580","display_name":"Vagus Nerve Stimulation Research","score":0.9588000178337097,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2808","display_name":"Neurology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/eye-tracking","display_name":"Eye tracking","score":0.7058951258659363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6600300669670105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6411074995994568},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.5848360061645508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.32457172870635986}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56461940","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q970687","display_name":"Eye tracking","level":2,"score":0.7058951258659363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6600300669670105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6411074995994568},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5848360061645508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.32457172870635986}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/computers14060212","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14060212","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-431X/14/6/212/pdf?version=1748611528","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210228075","display_name":"Computers","issn_l":"2073-431X","issn":["2073-431X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:1fdfe579958d4a41871690d24a3803fd","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/1fdfe579958d4a41871690d24a3803fd","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Computers, Vol 14, Iss 6, p 212 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/computers14060212","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14060212","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-431X/14/6/212/pdf?version=1748611528","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210228075","display_name":"Computers","issn_l":"2073-431X","issn":["2073-431X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4410966736.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4410966736.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":35,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2101545465","https://openalex.org/W2995199498","https://openalex.org/W3091811842","https://openalex.org/W3114369069","https://openalex.org/W3183592968","https://openalex.org/W3186513815","https://openalex.org/W3186724373","https://openalex.org/W4280567467","https://openalex.org/W4288067336","https://openalex.org/W4306194461","https://openalex.org/W4309047485","https://openalex.org/W4312652421","https://openalex.org/W4317213439","https://openalex.org/W4386390267","https://openalex.org/W4391226418","https://openalex.org/W4391528523","https://openalex.org/W4391791478","https://openalex.org/W4392346526","https://openalex.org/W4392456270","https://openalex.org/W4393638643","https://openalex.org/W4394011052","https://openalex.org/W4394997664","https://openalex.org/W4396712649","https://openalex.org/W4399199379","https://openalex.org/W4399615882","https://openalex.org/W4399662871","https://openalex.org/W4400522055","https://openalex.org/W4401101969","https://openalex.org/W4401865889","https://openalex.org/W4401990283","https://openalex.org/W4403787421","https://openalex.org/W4406399483","https://openalex.org/W4410127474","https://openalex.org/W4410438544","https://openalex.org/W6874329677"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2961085424","https://openalex.org/W4306674287","https://openalex.org/W4387369504","https://openalex.org/W4394896187","https://openalex.org/W3170094116","https://openalex.org/W4386462264","https://openalex.org/W3107602296","https://openalex.org/W4364306694","https://openalex.org/W4312192474","https://openalex.org/W2033914206"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Pain":[0],"estimation":[1,42],"is":[2,70,87],"a":[3,36,137],"critical":[4],"aspect":[5],"of":[6,76,127,165,189],"healthcare,":[7,204],"particularly":[8],"for":[9,39,72,132,173,196],"patients":[10],"who":[11],"are":[12,27,115],"unable":[13],"to":[14,31,63,141,158],"communicate":[15],"discomfort":[16],"effectively.":[17],"The":[18,51,143,170],"traditional":[19],"methods,":[20],"such":[21,94],"as":[22,95],"self-reporting":[23],"or":[24],"observational":[25],"scales,":[26],"subjective":[28],"and":[29,46,60,79,100,113,153,167,207],"prone":[30],"bias.":[32],"This":[33,183],"study":[34],"proposes":[35],"novel":[37],"system":[38],"non-invasive":[40,197],"pain":[41,133,198],"using":[43,89,146],"eye-tracking":[44,191],"technology":[45],"advanced":[47],"machine":[48,104,194],"learning":[49,105,195],"models.":[50],"methodology":[52],"begins":[53],"with":[54,161,193,200],"preprocessing":[55],"steps,":[56],"including":[57,107],"resizing,":[58],"normalization,":[59],"data":[61,192],"augmentation,":[62],"prepare":[64],"high-quality":[65],"input":[66],"face":[67,80],"images.":[68],"DeepLabV3+":[69,174],"employed":[71],"the":[73,77,118,123,159,186],"precise":[74],"segmentation":[75],"eye":[78],"regions,":[81],"achieving":[82],"95%":[83],"accuracy.":[84],"Feature":[85],"extraction":[86],"performed":[88],"VGG16,":[90],"capturing":[91],"key":[92],"metrics":[93],"pupil":[96,151],"size,":[97],"blink":[98,154],"rate,":[99],"saccade":[101],"velocity.":[102],"Multiple":[103],"models,":[106],"Random":[108],"Forest,":[109],"SVM,":[110],"MLP,":[111],"XGBoost,":[112],"NGBoost,":[114],"trained":[116],"on":[117,136],"extracted":[119],"features.":[120],"XGBoost":[121],"achieves":[122],"highest":[124],"classification":[125,135],"accuracy":[126],"99.5%,":[128],"demonstrating":[129],"its":[130],"robustness":[131],"level":[134],"scale":[138],"from":[139],"0":[140],"5.":[142],"feature":[144],"analysis":[145],"SHAP":[147,162],"values":[148],"reveals":[149],"that":[150],"size":[152],"rate":[155],"contribute":[156],"most":[157],"predictions,":[160],"contribution":[163],"scores":[164],"0.42":[166],"0.35,":[168],"respectively.":[169],"loss":[171],"curves":[172],"confirm":[175],"rapid":[176],"convergence":[177],"during":[178],"training,":[179],"ensuring":[180],"reliable":[181],"segmentation.":[182],"work":[184],"highlights":[185],"transformative":[187],"potential":[188],"combining":[190],"estimation,":[199],"significant":[201],"applications":[202],"in":[203],"human\u2013computer":[205],"interaction,":[206],"assistive":[208],"technologies.":[209]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-03-10T16:38:18.471706","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
