{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4407414391","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14020057","title":"Real-Time Gaze Estimation Using Webcam-Based CNN Models for Human\u2013Computer Interactions","display_name":"Real-Time Gaze Estimation Using Webcam-Based CNN Models for Human\u2013Computer Interactions","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-02-10","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4407414391","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14020057"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/computers14020057","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14020057","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-431X/14/2/57/pdf?version=1739177482","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210228075","display_name":"Computers","issn_l":"2073-431X","issn":["2073-431X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-431X/14/2/57/pdf?version=1739177482","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5068538417","display_name":"V Vidhya","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141584323","display_name":"University of Hertfordshire","ror":"https://ror.org/0267vjk41","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141584323"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Visal Vidhya","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Physics, Engineering and Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Physics, Engineering and Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141584323"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032454100","display_name":"Diego R. Faria","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2771-1713"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141584323","display_name":"University of Hertfordshire","ror":"https://ror.org/0267vjk41","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141584323"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Diego Resende Faria","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Physics, Engineering and Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Physics, Engineering and Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141584323"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5032454100"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141584323"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1732},"fwci":12.1799,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":6,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.98417304,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":"2","first_page":"57","last_page":"57"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11707","display_name":"Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11707","display_name":"Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11398","display_name":"Hand Gesture Recognition Systems","score":0.9886000156402588,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1709","display_name":"Human-Computer Interaction"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13731","display_name":"Advanced Computing and Algorithms","score":0.9567000269889832,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3322","display_name":"Urban Studies"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gaze","display_name":"Gaze","score":0.8850364685058594},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.75380539894104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.6579694747924805},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6267740726470947},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-graphics","display_name":"Computer graphics (images)","score":0.5399574637413025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/estimation","display_name":"Estimation","score":0.48385846614837646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human\u2013computer-interaction","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","score":0.3785156309604645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.05773735046386719}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779916870","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14467155","display_name":"Gaze","level":2,"score":0.8850364685058594},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.75380539894104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.6579694747924805},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6267740726470947},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121684516","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7600677","display_name":"Computer graphics (images)","level":1,"score":0.5399574637413025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C96250715","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q965330","display_name":"Estimation","level":2,"score":0.48385846614837646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.3785156309604645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.05773735046386719},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201995342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q682496","display_name":"Systems engineering","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/computers14020057","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14020057","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-431X/14/2/57/pdf?version=1739177482","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210228075","display_name":"Computers","issn_l":"2073-431X","issn":["2073-431X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:edb47c6b15c541b79062f5e56e02c0ad","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/edb47c6b15c541b79062f5e56e02c0ad","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Computers, Vol 14, Iss 2, p 57 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/computers14020057","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/computers14020057","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2073-431X/14/2/57/pdf?version=1739177482","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210228075","display_name":"Computers","issn_l":"2073-431X","issn":["2073-431X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4407414391.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4407414391.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":32,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1576270595","https://openalex.org/W2052487768","https://openalex.org/W2112179569","https://openalex.org/W2299591120","https://openalex.org/W2468114283","https://openalex.org/W2544119967","https://openalex.org/W2760154395","https://openalex.org/W2766035570","https://openalex.org/W2778268008","https://openalex.org/W2794042075","https://openalex.org/W2810712262","https://openalex.org/W2924068209","https://openalex.org/W2970876328","https://openalex.org/W3000387804","https://openalex.org/W3003680527","https://openalex.org/W3026168715","https://openalex.org/W3080078178","https://openalex.org/W3121640062","https://openalex.org/W3154402863","https://openalex.org/W3204273983","https://openalex.org/W4210990105","https://openalex.org/W4221075283","https://openalex.org/W4251965441","https://openalex.org/W4283028664","https://openalex.org/W4283312461","https://openalex.org/W4293190397","https://openalex.org/W4315563625","https://openalex.org/W4319337034","https://openalex.org/W4320727710","https://openalex.org/W4388283056","https://openalex.org/W4395054544","https://openalex.org/W6679336668"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W1880689012","https://openalex.org/W3014378845","https://openalex.org/W4240909707","https://openalex.org/W2059546927","https://openalex.org/W3207760378","https://openalex.org/W1986970529","https://openalex.org/W2562758970","https://openalex.org/W1563178652","https://openalex.org/W2385108104","https://openalex.org/W4399144619"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Gaze":[0],"tracking":[1,24],"and":[2,10,59,65,101,170,200,232,256,265],"estimation":[3],"are":[4,205],"essential":[5],"for":[6,21,226,249,259],"understanding":[7],"human":[8],"behavior":[9],"enhancing":[11],"human\u2013computer":[12,263],"interactions.":[13],"This":[14,113],"study":[15],"introduces":[16],"an":[17,102,116,209],"innovative,":[18],"cost-effective":[19],"solution":[20,258],"real-time":[22],"gaze":[23,86,128,141,190,197,244],"using":[25],"a":[26,30,74,94,107,119,145,154,254],"standard":[27],"webcam,":[28],"providing":[29],"practical":[31,255],"alternative":[32],"to":[33,55,83],"conventional":[34],"methods":[35],"that":[36,238],"rely":[37],"on":[38,80,149,182],"expensive":[39,250],"infrared":[40],"(IR)":[41],"cameras.":[42],"Traditional":[43],"approaches,":[44],"such":[45,193],"as":[46,194],"Pupil":[47],"Center":[48],"Corneal":[49],"Reflection":[50],"(PCCR),":[51],"require":[52],"IR":[53],"cameras":[54],"capture":[56],"corneal":[57],"reflections":[58],"iris":[60],"glints,":[61],"demanding":[62],"high-resolution":[63],"images":[64,82,173],"controlled":[66],"environments.":[67],"In":[68],"contrast,":[69],"the":[70,123,126,130,138,150,158,175,183,186,239,247],"proposed":[71,240],"method":[72,241],"utilizes":[73],"convolutional":[75],"neural":[76],"network":[77],"(CNN)":[78],"trained":[79],"webcam-captured":[81],"achieve":[84],"precise":[85],"estimation.":[87],"The":[88,213,234],"developed":[89],"deep":[90],"learning":[91],"model":[92,225],"achieves":[93],"mean":[95],"squared":[96],"error":[97],"(MSE)":[98],"of":[99,104,118,140,157,174,215],"0.0112":[100],"accuracy":[103,110,231],"90.98%":[105],"through":[106],"novel":[108],"trajectory-based":[109],"evaluation":[111,156,235],"system.":[112],"system":[114,187],"involves":[115],"animation":[117],"ball":[120],"moving":[121],"across":[122,161],"screen,":[124],"with":[125],"user\u2019s":[127,176],"following":[129],"ball\u2019s":[131,151],"motion.":[132],"Accuracy":[133],"is":[134,167,218],"determined":[135],"by":[136,221],"calculating":[137],"proportion":[139],"points":[142],"falling":[143],"within":[144],"predefined":[146],"threshold":[147],"based":[148],"radius,":[152],"ensuring":[153],"comprehensive":[155],"system\u2019s":[159],"performance":[160],"all":[162,206],"screen":[163],"regions.":[164],"Data":[165],"collection":[166],"both":[168],"simplified":[169],"effective,":[171],"capturing":[172],"right":[177],"eye":[178],"while":[179],"they":[180],"focus":[181],"screen.":[184],"Additionally,":[185],"includes":[188],"advanced":[189],"analysis":[191],"tools,":[192],"heat":[195],"maps,":[196],"fixation":[198],"tracking,":[199],"blink":[201],"rate":[202],"monitoring,":[203],"which":[204],"integrated":[207],"into":[208],"intuitive":[210],"user":[211],"interface.":[212],"robustness":[214],"this":[216],"approach":[217],"further":[219],"enhanced":[220],"incorporating":[222],"Google\u2019s":[223],"Mediapipe":[224],"facial":[227],"landmark":[228],"detection,":[229],"improving":[230],"reliability.":[233],"results":[236],"demonstrate":[237],"delivers":[242],"high-accuracy":[243],"prediction":[245],"without":[246],"need":[248],"equipment,":[251],"making":[252],"it":[253],"accessible":[257],"diverse":[260],"applications":[261],"in":[262],"interactions":[264],"behavioral":[266],"research.":[267]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4}],"updated_date":"2026-03-20T23:20:44.827607","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}