{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4410542567","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/bdcc9050138","title":"A Comparative Study of Ensemble Machine Learning and Explainable AI for Predicting Harmful Algal Blooms","display_name":"A Comparative Study of Ensemble Machine Learning and Explainable AI for Predicting Harmful Algal Blooms","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-05-20","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4410542567","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/bdcc9050138"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/bdcc9050138","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/bdcc9050138","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-2289/9/5/138/pdf?version=1747817286","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210238752","display_name":"Big Data and Cognitive Computing","issn_l":"2504-2289","issn":["2504-2289"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Big Data and Cognitive Computing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-2289/9/5/138/pdf?version=1747817286","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5092852329","display_name":"Omer Mermer","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6691-6558"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I126307644","display_name":"University of Iowa","ror":"https://ror.org/036jqmy94","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126307644"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Omer Mermer","raw_affiliation_strings":["IIHR Hydroscience and Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6691-6558","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"IIHR Hydroscience and Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I126307644"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5104190293","display_name":"Eddie Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I126307644","display_name":"University of Iowa","ror":"https://ror.org/036jqmy94","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126307644"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Eddie Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["IIHR Hydroscience and Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA","The Harker School, San Jose, CA 95124, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"IIHR Hydroscience and Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I126307644"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Harker School, San Jose, CA 95124, USA","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5078658866","display_name":"\u0130brahim Demir","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0461-1242"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I114832834","display_name":"Tulane University","ror":"https://ror.org/04vmvtb21","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I114832834"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ibrahim Demir","raw_affiliation_strings":["ByWater Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA","Department of River-Coastal Science and Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0461-1242","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"ByWater Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I114832834"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of River-Coastal Science and Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I114832834"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5092852329"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I126307644"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1782},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1782},"fwci":44.6343,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":19,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99711403,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"9","issue":"5","first_page":"138","last_page":"138"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11986","display_name":"Scientific Computing and Data Management","score":0.7843999862670898,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1802","display_name":"Information Systems and Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11986","display_name":"Scientific Computing and Data Management","score":0.7843999862670898,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1802","display_name":"Information Systems and Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12761","display_name":"Data Stream Mining Techniques","score":0.7174000144004822,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algal-bloom","display_name":"Algal bloom","score":0.7364886999130249},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.5228319764137268},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.47261619567871094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ensemble-learning","display_name":"Ensemble learning","score":0.4323929250240326},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.4033203721046448},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/biology","display_name":"Biology","score":0.1970900595188141},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ecology","display_name":"Ecology","score":0.1887030005455017},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/phytoplankton","display_name":"Phytoplankton","score":0.07704460620880127}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120305227","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q326139","display_name":"Algal bloom","level":4,"score":0.7364886999130249},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5228319764137268},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.47261619567871094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45942800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245652","display_name":"Ensemble learning","level":2,"score":0.4323929250240326},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.4033203721046448},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.1970900595188141},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18903297","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7150","display_name":"Ecology","level":1,"score":0.1887030005455017},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780892065","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184755","display_name":"Phytoplankton","level":3,"score":0.07704460620880127},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142796444","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181394","display_name":"Nutrient","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/bdcc9050138","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/bdcc9050138","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-2289/9/5/138/pdf?version=1747817286","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210238752","display_name":"Big Data and Cognitive Computing","issn_l":"2504-2289","issn":["2504-2289"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Big Data and Cognitive Computing","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:34cf4a4b6d1649d9b55dd56bab6f02db","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/34cf4a4b6d1649d9b55dd56bab6f02db","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Big Data and Cognitive Computing, Vol 9, Iss 5, p 138 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/bdcc9050138","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/bdcc9050138","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2504-2289/9/5/138/pdf?version=1747817286","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210238752","display_name":"Big Data and Cognitive Computing","issn_l":"2504-2289","issn":["2504-2289"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Big Data and Cognitive Computing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4410542567.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4410542567.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":99,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W28412257","https://openalex.org/W97681402","https://openalex.org/W1584236903","https://openalex.org/W1678356000","https://openalex.org/W1795230821","https://openalex.org/W1847188688","https://openalex.org/W1964802179","https://openalex.org/W1991803657","https://openalex.org/W1998454837","https://openalex.org/W2005403210","https://openalex.org/W2026755748","https://openalex.org/W2036885130","https://openalex.org/W2044286222","https://openalex.org/W2077592630","https://openalex.org/W2083183994","https://openalex.org/W2088684653","https://openalex.org/W2136132422","https://openalex.org/W2138631674","https://openalex.org/W2145064657","https://openalex.org/W2152761983","https://openalex.org/W2166277006","https://openalex.org/W2168853042","https://openalex.org/W2195352021","https://openalex.org/W2261507215","https://openalex.org/W2295598076","https://openalex.org/W2358484769","https://openalex.org/W2364155650","https://openalex.org/W2512625237","https://openalex.org/W2514048373","https://openalex.org/W2529233341","https://openalex.org/W2568546104","https://openalex.org/W2578123690","https://openalex.org/W2609518688","https://openalex.org/W2767060092","https://openalex.org/W2768348081","https://openalex.org/W2795411881","https://openalex.org/W2911964244","https://openalex.org/W2924181612","https://openalex.org/W2941857669","https://openalex.org/W2945653519","https://openalex.org/W2950674490","https://openalex.org/W2955384860","https://openalex.org/W2966423332","https://openalex.org/W2967895093","https://openalex.org/W2981731882","https://openalex.org/W2989708277","https://openalex.org/W2990498406","https://openalex.org/W2999615587","https://openalex.org/W3037839509","https://openalex.org/W3082075882","https://openalex.org/W3089959426","https://openalex.org/W3091219271","https://openalex.org/W3101344045","https://openalex.org/W3101981467","https://openalex.org/W3106960842","https://openalex.org/W3106991929","https://openalex.org/W3108080245","https://openalex.org/W3112813418","https://openalex.org/W3116336401","https://openalex.org/W3130173155","https://openalex.org/W3135620683","https://openalex.org/W3146522953","https://openalex.org/W3157274116","https://openalex.org/W3183218270","https://openalex.org/W3188848007","https://openalex.org/W3211639647","https://openalex.org/W4214886347","https://openalex.org/W4220792318","https://openalex.org/W4223458449","https://openalex.org/W4223594669","https://openalex.org/W4229454152","https://openalex.org/W4232714830","https://openalex.org/W4236137412","https://openalex.org/W4252208101","https://openalex.org/W4282980665","https://openalex.org/W4283785192","https://openalex.org/W4293764517","https://openalex.org/W4306849923","https://openalex.org/W4316345175","https://openalex.org/W4319264769","https://openalex.org/W4378174554","https://openalex.org/W4380879833","https://openalex.org/W4384524063","https://openalex.org/W4386024384","https://openalex.org/W4386162545","https://openalex.org/W4387268030","https://openalex.org/W4387993566","https://openalex.org/W4388416287","https://openalex.org/W4389195635","https://openalex.org/W4389702619","https://openalex.org/W4393935449","https://openalex.org/W4395664726","https://openalex.org/W4396573510","https://openalex.org/W4399546363","https://openalex.org/W4401462574","https://openalex.org/W4407973294","https://openalex.org/W6610017368","https://openalex.org/W6656627247","https://openalex.org/W6737947904"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2961085424","https://openalex.org/W4306674287","https://openalex.org/W4387369504","https://openalex.org/W4394896187","https://openalex.org/W3170094116","https://openalex.org/W4386462264","https://openalex.org/W3107602296","https://openalex.org/W4364306694","https://openalex.org/W4312192474","https://openalex.org/W4283697347"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Harmful":[0],"algal":[1,84],"blooms":[2],"(HABs),":[3],"driven":[4],"by":[5,35],"environmental":[6,231],"pollution,":[7],"pose":[8],"significant":[9],"threats":[10],"to":[11,56,66],"water":[12,51,218],"quality,":[13],"public":[14],"health,":[15],"and":[16,61,80,103,105,121,134,147,177,222],"aquatic":[17],"ecosystems.":[18],"This":[19,86,189],"study":[20,87],"enhances":[21,208],"the":[22,31,129,160,164,168,182,186,192,204,214,224],"prediction":[23],"of":[24,30,77,145,152,163,194,206,216,226],"HABs":[25],"in":[26],"Lake":[27],"Erie,":[28],"part":[29],"Great":[32],"Lakes":[33],"system,":[34],"utilizing":[36],"ensemble":[37,90,130,195],"machine":[38,116],"learning":[39],"(ML)":[40],"models":[41,197],"coupled":[42],"with":[43,142],"explainable":[44],"artificial":[45],"intelligence":[46],"(XAI)":[47],"for":[48,83,198,230],"interpretability.":[49,210],"Using":[50],"quality":[52,219],"data":[53],"from":[54],"2013":[55],"2020,":[57],"various":[58],"physical,":[59],"chemical,":[60],"biological":[62],"parameters":[63],"were":[64],"analyzed":[65],"predict":[67],"chlorophyll-a":[68],"(Chl-a)":[69],"concentrations,":[70],"which":[71],"are":[72],"a":[73,81],"commonly":[74],"used":[75],"indicator":[76],"phytoplankton":[78],"biomass":[79],"proxy":[82],"blooms.":[85],"employed":[88],"multiple":[89],"ML":[91,196,228],"models,":[92,111,131],"including":[93],"random":[94],"forest":[95,98,136],"(RF),":[96],"deep":[97,135],"(DF),":[99,137],"gradient":[100],"boosting":[101],"(GB),":[102],"XGBoost,":[104],"compared":[106],"their":[107],"performance":[108],"against":[109],"individual":[110],"such":[112],"as":[113,181],"support":[114,213],"vector":[115],"(SVM),":[117],"decision":[118],"tree":[119],"(DT),":[120],"multi-layer":[122],"perceptron":[123],"(MLP).":[124],"The":[125,150,211],"findings":[126],"revealed":[127],"that":[128],"particularly":[132],"XGBoost":[133],"achieved":[138],"superior":[139],"predictive":[140,201],"accuracy,":[141,202],"R2":[143],"values":[144],"0.8517":[146],"0.8544,":[148],"respectively.":[149],"application":[151],"SHapley":[153],"Additive":[154],"exPlanations":[155],"(SHAPs)":[156],"provided":[157],"insights":[158],"into":[159],"relative":[161],"importance":[162],"input":[165],"features,":[166],"identifying":[167],"particulate":[169,173],"organic":[170,174],"nitrogen":[171],"(PON),":[172],"carbon":[175],"(POC),":[176],"total":[178],"phosphorus":[179],"(TP)":[180],"critical":[183],"factors":[184],"influencing":[185],"Chl-a":[187],"concentrations.":[188],"research":[190],"demonstrates":[191],"effectiveness":[193],"achieving":[199],"high":[200],"while":[203],"integration":[205],"XAI":[207],"model":[209],"results":[212],"development":[215],"proactive":[217],"management":[220],"strategies":[221],"highlight":[223],"potential":[225],"advanced":[227],"techniques":[229],"monitoring.":[232]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":12},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":7}],"updated_date":"2026-07-23T08:03:31.855105","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}