{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4415649812","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a18110680","title":"Visible Image-Based Machine Learning for Identifying Abiotic Stress in Sugar Beet Crops","display_name":"Visible Image-Based Machine Learning for Identifying Abiotic Stress in Sugar Beet Crops","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-10-24","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4415649812","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a18110680"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/a18110680","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a18110680","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4893/18/11/680/pdf?version=1761304673","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190629608","display_name":"Algorithms","issn_l":"1999-4893","issn":["1999-4893"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4893/18/11/680/pdf?version=1761304673","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119313701","display_name":"Seyed Reza Haddadi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1732-3964"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I69425150","display_name":"Imam Khomeini International University","ror":"https://ror.org/02jeykk09","country_code":"IR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I69425150"]}],"countries":["IR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Seyed Reza Haddadi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Water Science and Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin 34148-96818, Iran"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Water Science and Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin 34148-96818, Iran","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I69425150"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005747820","display_name":"Masoumeh Hashemi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8649-5208"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121980950","display_name":"Utah State University","ror":"https://ror.org/00h6set76","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121980950"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Masoumeh Hashemi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Plants, Soils & Climate Department, College of Applied Agriculture Science, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-0500, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Plants, Soils & Climate Department, College of Applied Agriculture Science, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-0500, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121980950"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5110046314","display_name":"Richard C. Peralta","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4959-9934"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121980950","display_name":"Utah State University","ror":"https://ror.org/00h6set76","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121980950"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Richard C. Peralta","raw_affiliation_strings":["Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Utah State University, Logan, UT 843322, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Utah State University, Logan, UT 843322, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121980950"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5048828840","display_name":"Masoud Soltani","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8696-8247"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I69425150","display_name":"Imam Khomeini International University","ror":"https://ror.org/02jeykk09","country_code":"IR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I69425150"]}],"countries":["IR"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Masoud Soltani","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Water Science and Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin 34148-96818, Iran"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Water Science and Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin 34148-96818, Iran","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I69425150"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5005747820","https://openalex.org/A5048828840","https://openalex.org/A5110046314"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121980950","https://openalex.org/I69425150"],"apc_list":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"apc_paid":{"value":1400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1515},"fwci":3.2836,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.92685203,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"18","issue":"11","first_page":"680","last_page":"680"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10616","display_name":"Smart Agriculture and AI","score":0.6348999738693237,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10616","display_name":"Smart Agriculture and AI","score":0.6348999738693237,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12660","display_name":"Plant Disease Management Techniques","score":0.1185000017285347,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10111","display_name":"Remote Sensing in Agriculture","score":0.040699999779462814,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2303","display_name":"Ecology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rgb-color-model","display_name":"RGB color model","score":0.7734000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-forest","display_name":"Random forest","score":0.6974999904632568},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/canopy","display_name":"Canopy","score":0.5192000269889832},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/principal-component-analysis","display_name":"Principal component analysis","score":0.4652000069618225},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.4560000002384186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.40779998898506165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/abiotic-stress","display_name":"Abiotic stress","score":0.384799987077713},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/support-vector-machine","display_name":"Support vector machine","score":0.3790000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/water-balance","display_name":"Water balance","score":0.35429999232292175}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82990744","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166194","display_name":"RGB color model","level":2,"score":0.7734000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169258074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245748","display_name":"Random forest","level":2,"score":0.6974999904632568},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6568999886512756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.6330000162124634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C101000010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5033434","display_name":"Canopy","level":2,"score":0.5192000269889832},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5023000240325928},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27438332","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2873","display_name":"Principal component analysis","level":2,"score":0.4652000069618225},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.4560000002384186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.40779998898506165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89519541","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4667893","display_name":"Abiotic stress","level":3,"score":0.384799987077713},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.3790000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66465714","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1148989","display_name":"Water balance","level":2,"score":0.35429999232292175},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9417928","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1070689","display_name":"Image processing","level":3,"score":0.3424000144004822},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75294576","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165192","display_name":"Contextual image classification","level":3,"score":0.34060001373291016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.32910001277923584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2983671280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5376358","display_name":"Water stress","level":2,"score":0.32829999923706055},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.32659998536109924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.3163999915122986},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70518039","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16000077","display_name":"Dimensionality reduction","level":2,"score":0.31439998745918274},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21036866","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181767","display_name":"Stress (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.31360000371932983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39432304","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188847","display_name":"Environmental science","level":0,"score":0.30809998512268066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C88463610","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q194118","display_name":"Agricultural engineering","level":1,"score":0.2928999960422516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132215390","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q461335","display_name":"Abiotic component","level":2,"score":0.2888999879360199},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777108408","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11002","display_name":"Sugar","level":2,"score":0.28790000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.2824000120162964},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776936025","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q151964","display_name":"Sugar beet","level":2,"score":0.27900001406669617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137580998","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q235352","display_name":"Crop","level":2,"score":0.26919999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C5339829","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1425977","display_name":"Machine vision","level":2,"score":0.26840001344680786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.2653000056743622},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.2596000134944916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C176783924","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q828158","display_name":"Evapotranspiration","level":2,"score":0.2583000063896179},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C6557445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173113","display_name":"Agronomy","level":1,"score":0.2558000087738037}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/a18110680","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a18110680","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4893/18/11/680/pdf?version=1761304673","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190629608","display_name":"Algorithms","issn_l":"1999-4893","issn":["1999-4893"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:digitalcommons.usu.edu:psc_stures-1019","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/psc_stures/20","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196327","display_name":"Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I121980950","host_organization_name":"Utah State University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121980950"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Plants, Soils and Climate Student Research","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:158c9f85f5c74accb771b5f3ce8a0e27","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/158c9f85f5c74accb771b5f3ce8a0e27","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms, Vol 18, Iss 11, p 680 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/a18110680","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a18110680","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4893/18/11/680/pdf?version=1761304673","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190629608","display_name":"Algorithms","issn_l":"1999-4893","issn":["1999-4893"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320309198","display_name":"Utah State University","ror":"https://ror.org/00h6set76"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322209","display_name":"Imam Khomeini International University","ror":"https://ror.org/02jeykk09"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4415649812.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4415649812.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":51,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1996146149","https://openalex.org/W2020547502","https://openalex.org/W2027255988","https://openalex.org/W2031138951","https://openalex.org/W2042413420","https://openalex.org/W2074464158","https://openalex.org/W2103504431","https://openalex.org/W2119821739","https://openalex.org/W2122671423","https://openalex.org/W2124386111","https://openalex.org/W2159961845","https://openalex.org/W2163450852","https://openalex.org/W2185489349","https://openalex.org/W2190198903","https://openalex.org/W2270460811","https://openalex.org/W2295860457","https://openalex.org/W2490800645","https://openalex.org/W2524440055","https://openalex.org/W2604496315","https://openalex.org/W2766736793","https://openalex.org/W2796750794","https://openalex.org/W2799437918","https://openalex.org/W2885355309","https://openalex.org/W2886555888","https://openalex.org/W2895277873","https://openalex.org/W2914064754","https://openalex.org/W2918181951","https://openalex.org/W2938827311","https://openalex.org/W2968609328","https://openalex.org/W2978632040","https://openalex.org/W3014726940","https://openalex.org/W3017854767","https://openalex.org/W3085011358","https://openalex.org/W3097728713","https://openalex.org/W3108919541","https://openalex.org/W3112929969","https://openalex.org/W3119209066","https://openalex.org/W3130039334","https://openalex.org/W3181572567","https://openalex.org/W3198108106","https://openalex.org/W3204639615","https://openalex.org/W4206582850","https://openalex.org/W4223559749","https://openalex.org/W4232749275","https://openalex.org/W4254309142","https://openalex.org/W4294958752","https://openalex.org/W4297957988","https://openalex.org/W4312100603","https://openalex.org/W4399663950","https://openalex.org/W4401483236","https://openalex.org/W4414107658"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Previous":[0],"researches":[1],"have":[2],"proved":[3],"that":[4,213],"the":[5,33,58,75,144,157,195],"synchronized":[6],"use":[7],"of":[8,38],"inexpensive":[9],"RGB":[10,48,112,183],"images,":[11],"image":[12,72],"processing,":[13],"and":[14,35,52,73,84,90,99,103,127,129,133,185,199,216],"machine":[15],"learning":[16],"(ML)":[17],"can":[18],"accurately":[19],"identify":[20],"crop":[21],"stress.":[22,192],"Four":[23],"Machine":[24],"Learning":[25],"Image":[26],"Modules":[27],"(MLIMs)":[28],"were":[29,55],"developed":[30],"to":[31,79,116],"enable":[32],"rapid":[34],"cost-effective":[36],"identification":[37],"sugar":[39],"beet":[40],"stresses":[41],"caused":[42],"by":[43],"water":[44,132,178],"and/or":[45],"nitrogen":[46,134,191],"deficiencies.":[47],"images":[49,81],"representing":[50],"stressed":[51],"non-stressed":[53],"crops":[54],"used":[56,111],"in":[57],"analysis.":[59],"To":[60,193],"improve":[61],"robustness,":[62],"data":[63],"augmentation":[64],"was":[65,88,206],"applied,":[66],"generating":[67],"six":[68,104],"variations":[69],"on":[70],"each":[71],"expanding":[74],"dataset":[76],"from":[77,96],"150":[78],"900":[80],"for":[82,123,131,150,177,190],"training":[83],"testing.":[85],"Each":[86],"MLIM":[87,110],"trained":[89],"tested":[91],"using":[92,142,168],"54":[93],"combinations":[94],"derived":[95],"nine":[97],"canopy":[98,186],"RGB-based":[100],"input":[101],"features":[102],"ML":[105],"algorithms.":[106],"The":[107],"most":[108],"accurate":[109],"bands":[113,184],"as":[114],"inputs":[115],"a":[117,163,169,202],"Multilayer":[118],"Perceptron,":[119],"achieving":[120],"96.67%":[121],"accuracy":[122,149,198],"overall":[124],"stress":[125,135,151],"detection,":[126],"95.93%":[128],"94.44%":[130],"identification,":[136],"respectively.":[137],"A":[138],"Random":[139,164],"Forest":[140,165],"model,":[141],"only":[143,155],"green":[145],"band,":[146],"achieved":[147,175],"92.22%":[148],"detection":[152],"while":[153,180],"requiring":[154],"one-fourth":[156],"computation":[158],"time.":[159],"For":[160],"specific":[161],"stresses,":[162],"(RF)":[166],"model":[167],"Scale-Invariant":[170],"Feature":[171],"Transform":[172],"descriptor":[173],"(SIFT)":[174],"93.33%":[176],"stress,":[179],"RF":[181],"with":[182],"cover":[187],"reached":[188],"85.56%":[189],"address":[194],"trade-off":[196],"between":[197],"computational":[200],"cost,":[201],"bargaining":[203],"theory-based":[204],"framework":[205],"applied.":[207],"This":[208],"approach":[209],"identified":[210],"optimal":[211],"MLIMs":[212],"balance":[214],"performance":[215],"execution":[217],"efficiency.":[218]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-04-12T07:58:50.170612","created_date":"2025-10-29T00:00:00"}