{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4416387338","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1694772","title":"Robots in the moral loop: a field study of AI advisors in ethical military decision-making","display_name":"Robots in the moral loop: a field study of AI advisors in ethical military decision-making","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-11-20","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4416387338","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1694772","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41356668"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1694772","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1694772","pdf_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1694772/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1694772/pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5017244472","display_name":"Chad C. Tossell","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1662-9308"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I84475105","display_name":"Embry\u2013Riddle Aeronautical University","ror":"https://ror.org/010jskt71","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I84475105"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Chad C. Tossell","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Human Factors, Safety, and Social Sciences, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL, United States"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Human Factors, Safety, and Social Sciences, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I84475105"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5093131420","display_name":"Christopher S. Kuennen","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I188538660","display_name":"University of Colorado Boulder","ror":"https://ror.org/02ttsq026","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I188538660"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Christopher Kuennen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Philosophy, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, United States"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Philosophy, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I188538660"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101498197","display_name":"Ali Momen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9903-9818"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2799950915","display_name":"Wright-Patterson Air Force Base","ror":"https://ror.org/0097e1k27","country_code":"US","type":"other","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I2799950915","https://openalex.org/I4210089612","https://openalex.org/I4210102105"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ali Momen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Air Force Research Laboratory, 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, United States"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Air Force Research Laboratory, 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2799950915"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5045116417","display_name":"Gregory J. Funke","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7782-9509"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2799950915","display_name":"Wright-Patterson Air Force Base","ror":"https://ror.org/0097e1k27","country_code":"US","type":"other","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I2799950915","https://openalex.org/I4210089612","https://openalex.org/I4210102105"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gregory Funke","raw_affiliation_strings":["Air Force Research Laboratory, 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, United States"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Air Force Research Laboratory, 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2799950915"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055626278","display_name":"Michael T. Tolston","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9536-3597"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2799950915","display_name":"Wright-Patterson Air Force Base","ror":"https://ror.org/0097e1k27","country_code":"US","type":"other","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I2799950915","https://openalex.org/I4210089612","https://openalex.org/I4210102105"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Michael Tolston","raw_affiliation_strings":["Air Force Research Laboratory, 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, United States"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Air Force Research Laboratory, 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2799950915"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5023496105","display_name":"Ewart J. de Visser","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9238-9081"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I430641","display_name":"United States Air Force Academy","ror":"https://ror.org/0055d0g64","country_code":"US","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I4210089612","https://openalex.org/I4210102105","https://openalex.org/I430641"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ewart J. De Visser","raw_affiliation_strings":["United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, CO, United States"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, CO, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I430641"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5017244472"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I84475105"],"apc_list":{"value":1150,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2125},"apc_paid":{"value":1150,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2125},"fwci":2.5434,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.91511768,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"8","issue":null,"first_page":"1694772","last_page":"1694772"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10883","display_name":"Ethics and Social Impacts of AI","score":0.5979999899864197,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10883","display_name":"Ethics and Social Impacts of AI","score":0.5979999899864197,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12520","display_name":"Psychology of Moral and Emotional Judgment","score":0.12219999730587006,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10709","display_name":"Social Robot Interaction and HRI","score":0.09529999643564224,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/moral-dilemma","display_name":"Moral dilemma","score":0.685699999332428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/field","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","score":0.5939000248908997},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/dilemma","display_name":"Dilemma","score":0.5802000164985657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/embodied-cognition","display_name":"Embodied cognition","score":0.5271000266075134},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ethical-dilemma","display_name":"Ethical dilemma","score":0.49799999594688416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robot","display_name":"Robot","score":0.4348999857902527},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/work","display_name":"Work (physics)","score":0.3817000091075897},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/moral-reasoning","display_name":"Moral reasoning","score":0.3813999891281128}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2994541713","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192568","display_name":"Moral dilemma","level":2,"score":0.685699999332428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9652623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190109","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.5939000248908997},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778496695","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254128","display_name":"Dilemma","level":2,"score":0.5802000164985657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.5321999788284302},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100609095","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1335050","display_name":"Embodied cognition","level":2,"score":0.5271000266075134},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55587333","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1133029","display_name":"Engineering ethics","level":1,"score":0.5113000273704529},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775890777","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192568","display_name":"Ethical dilemma","level":2,"score":0.49799999594688416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C90509273","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11012","display_name":"Robot","level":2,"score":0.4348999857902527},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.4311000108718872},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18762648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42213","display_name":"Work (physics)","level":2,"score":0.3817000091075897},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9158031","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6909140","display_name":"Moral reasoning","level":2,"score":0.3813999891281128},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190248442","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q839486","display_name":"Qualitative research","level":2,"score":0.37599998712539673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75630572","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q538904","display_name":"Applied psychology","level":1,"score":0.36980000138282776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145460709","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q859951","display_name":"Human\u2013robot interaction","level":3,"score":0.3440000116825104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780279448","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2559380","display_name":"Altruism (biology)","level":2,"score":0.32839998602867126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C60692881","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q584529","display_name":"Humanoid robot","level":3,"score":0.3125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187206662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55607920","display_name":"Social dilemma","level":2,"score":0.30959999561309814},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.3095000088214874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776768071","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5403402","display_name":"Ethical decision","level":2,"score":0.299699991941452},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39549134","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133080","display_name":"Public relations","level":1,"score":0.2944999933242798},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C57996006","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6909105","display_name":"Moral disengagement","level":2,"score":0.27639999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778938767","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1502043","display_name":"Rules of engagement","level":2,"score":0.2623000144958496},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24845683","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178651","display_name":"Interview","level":2,"score":0.2603999972343445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.2500999867916107}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1694772","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1694772","pdf_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1694772/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:41356668","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41356668","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in artificial intelligence","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:1f5c69e9efd5444ea979ef5771080829","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/1f5c69e9efd5444ea979ef5771080829","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, Vol 8 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1694772","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1694772","pdf_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1694772/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306078","display_name":"U.S. Department of Defense","ror":"https://ror.org/0447fe631"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4416387338.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4416387338.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":34,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1974166657","https://openalex.org/W2039476912","https://openalex.org/W2089012547","https://openalex.org/W2089730930","https://openalex.org/W2099752566","https://openalex.org/W2117218751","https://openalex.org/W2129900561","https://openalex.org/W2141563716","https://openalex.org/W2141796797","https://openalex.org/W2142827688","https://openalex.org/W2149583344","https://openalex.org/W2155246433","https://openalex.org/W2746351266","https://openalex.org/W2797784986","https://openalex.org/W3129913153","https://openalex.org/W3201147556","https://openalex.org/W4238447780","https://openalex.org/W4238516407","https://openalex.org/W4247085914","https://openalex.org/W4282563523","https://openalex.org/W4297903006","https://openalex.org/W4300459321","https://openalex.org/W4304099427","https://openalex.org/W4313334613","https://openalex.org/W4323661420","https://openalex.org/W4362673335","https://openalex.org/W4386820363","https://openalex.org/W4389240422","https://openalex.org/W4391903549","https://openalex.org/W4396519540","https://openalex.org/W4402232615","https://openalex.org/W4405319046","https://openalex.org/W4407084049","https://openalex.org/W4407910331"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Humans":[0],"now":[1],"routinely":[2],"work":[3],"alongside":[4],"AI":[5,275],"in":[6,60,101,229],"environments":[7],"where":[8],"the":[9,118,170,174,182,192],"ethical":[10],"consequences":[11],"of":[12,21,120,124,169,180,199,212,226],"decisions":[13,245],"are":[14],"profound,":[15],"yet":[16],"there":[17],"remains":[18],"limited":[19],"understanding":[20],"how":[22],"long-term":[23],"collaboration":[24],"with":[25,73,81,191],"a":[26,43,69,82,93,98,102,111,130,137,147,156],"robotic":[27,185,239],"teammate":[28],"shapes":[29],"individuals'":[30],"moral":[31,45,113,244,280],"judgment.":[32],"Prior":[33],"studies":[34],"have":[35,50],"demonstrated":[36],"that":[37,115,163,216,238,247],"people":[38],"can":[39,241],"be":[40],"influenced":[41],"by":[42,221],"robot's":[44],"recommendations,":[46],"but":[47],"such":[48,248],"investigations":[49],"largely":[51],"focused":[52],"on":[53,268],"single":[54],"dilemmas":[55],"or":[56,96,186],"brief":[57],"encounters":[58],"conducted":[59,68],"laboratory":[61],"settings.":[62],"To":[63],"address":[64],"this":[65,106],"gap,":[66],"we":[67],"three-month":[70],"teaming":[71],"program":[72],"62":[74],"U.S.":[75],"military":[76],"cadets":[77,109,171,201,217],"who":[78],"interacted":[79],"extensively":[80],"Socially":[83],"Intelligent":[84],"and":[85,154,232,246,266],"Ethical":[86],"Mission":[87],"Assistant":[88],"(SIEMA)":[89],"embodied":[90],"either":[91],"as":[92,97],"humanoid":[94],"robot":[95],"human":[99,269],"advisor":[100],"field":[103],"setting.":[104],"After":[105],"sustained":[107],"collaboration,":[108],"completed":[110],"graded":[112],"dilemma":[114],"required":[116],"balancing":[117],"lives":[119],"soldiers":[121],"against":[122],"those":[123],"civilians,":[125],"during":[126],"which":[127],"they":[128],"received":[129],"written":[131],"recommendation":[132,162,193],"from":[133],"their":[134,207,219,230],"SIEMA":[135],"promoting":[136],"utilitarian":[138,175],"option.":[139],"Each":[140],"participant":[141],"recorded":[142],"an":[143,160],"initial":[144],"judgment,":[145],"then":[146],"second":[148],"judgment":[149,158],"after":[150,177],"receiving":[151],"SIEMA's":[152],"advice,":[153,178],"finally":[155],"third":[157],"following":[159],"opposing":[161],"emphasized":[164],"civilian":[165,196],"protection.":[166],"Approximately":[167],"half":[168],"shifted":[172,202],"toward":[173],"option":[176],"regardless":[179],"whether":[181],"source":[183],"was":[184],"human.":[187],"When":[188],"subsequently":[189],"presented":[190],"to":[194,206,251],"prioritize":[195],"protection,":[197,227],"most":[198],"these":[200],"again,":[203],"often":[204],"returning":[205],"original":[208],"stance.":[209],"Qualitative":[210],"analyses":[211],"open-ended":[213],"explanations":[214],"revealed":[215],"justified":[218],"choices":[220],"invoking":[222],"outcome-based":[223],"reasoning,":[224],"duties":[225],"trust":[228],"teammate,":[231],"personal":[233],"values.":[234],"Our":[235],"findings":[236],"demonstrate":[237],"advisors":[240],"influence":[242,249],"nuanced":[243],"contributes":[250],"shaping":[252],"future":[253],"judgments.":[254],"Accordingly,":[255],"moral-AI":[256],"design":[257],"should":[258],"present":[259],"trade-offs":[260],"transparently,":[261],"surface":[262],"competing":[263],"values":[264],"concurrently,":[265],"rely":[267],"reflection":[270],"rather":[271],"than":[272],"assuming":[273],"isolated":[274],"prompts":[276],"will":[277],"durably":[278],"reset":[279],"priorities.":[281]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-07-22T07:51:19.307946","created_date":"2025-11-20T00:00:00"}