{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7123342624","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1693446","title":"Evaluating the efficacy of large language models in cardio-oncology patient education: a comparative analysis of accuracy, readability, and prompt engineering strategies","display_name":"Evaluating the efficacy of large language models in cardio-oncology patient education: a comparative analysis of accuracy, readability, and prompt engineering strategies","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-13","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7123342624","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1693446","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41608034"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1693446","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1693446","pdf_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1693446/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1693446/pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122852373","display_name":"Zhao Wang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I20231570","display_name":"Peking University","ror":"https://ror.org/02v51f717","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I20231570"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210141942","display_name":"Peking University Third Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/04wwqze12","country_code":"CN","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210141942"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhao Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Cardiology and Institute of Vascular Medicine, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Cardiology and Institute of Vascular Medicine, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20231570","https://openalex.org/I4210141942"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122863332","display_name":"Lin Liang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I183067930","display_name":"Shanghai Jiao Tong University","ror":"https://ror.org/0220qvk04","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I183067930"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210135742","display_name":"Shanghai First People's Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/04a46mh28","country_code":"CN","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210135742"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lin Liang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Cardiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Cardiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I183067930","https://openalex.org/I4210135742"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122848513","display_name":"Hao Xu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I183067930","display_name":"Shanghai Jiao Tong University","ror":"https://ror.org/0220qvk04","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I183067930"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210135742","display_name":"Shanghai First People's Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/04a46mh28","country_code":"CN","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210135742"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hao Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Cardiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Cardiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I183067930","https://openalex.org/I4210135742"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5025412143","display_name":"Yuhui Huang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2392-0630"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I183067930","display_name":"Shanghai Jiao Tong University","ror":"https://ror.org/0220qvk04","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I183067930"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210135742","display_name":"Shanghai First People's Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/04a46mh28","country_code":"CN","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210135742"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuhui Huang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Cardiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Cardiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I183067930","https://openalex.org/I4210135742"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122894278","display_name":"Chen He","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200296433","display_name":"Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College","ror":"https://ror.org/02drdmm93","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200296433"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210161896","display_name":"Fu Wai Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/0590dnz19","country_code":"CN","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210161896"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chen He","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cardiac Arrhythmia Center, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cardiac Arrhythmia Center, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210161896","https://openalex.org/I200296433"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5104167267","display_name":"Weiran Xu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I183519381","display_name":"Capital Medical University","ror":"https://ror.org/013xs5b60","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I183519381"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Weiran Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Medical Oncology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Medical Oncology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I183519381"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122845123","display_name":"Haojie Zhu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200296433","display_name":"Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College","ror":"https://ror.org/02drdmm93","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200296433"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210161896","display_name":"Fu Wai Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/0590dnz19","country_code":"CN","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210161896"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Haojie Zhu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cardiac Arrhythmia Center, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cardiac Arrhythmia Center, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210161896","https://openalex.org/I200296433"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":7,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5104167267","https://openalex.org/A5122845123"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I183519381","https://openalex.org/I200296433","https://openalex.org/I4210161896"],"apc_list":{"value":1150,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1150},"apc_paid":{"value":1150,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1150},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.03265997,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"8","issue":null,"first_page":"1693446","last_page":"1693446"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.6725999712944031,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.6725999712944031,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13629","display_name":"Text Readability and Simplification","score":0.045499999076128006,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.03500000014901161,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.3874000012874603},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/risk-assessment","display_name":"Risk assessment","score":0.3693999946117401},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sensitivity","display_name":"Sensitivity (control systems)","score":0.3479999899864197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.32850000262260437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/risk-management","display_name":"Risk management","score":0.304500013589859}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112930515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4389547","display_name":"Risk analysis (engineering)","level":1,"score":0.5482000112533569},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.49149999022483826},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.3874000012874603},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C539667460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2414942","display_name":"Management science","level":1,"score":0.37290000915527344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12174686","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1058438","display_name":"Risk assessment","level":2,"score":0.3693999946117401},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21200559","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7451068","display_name":"Sensitivity (control systems)","level":2,"score":0.3479999899864197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.32850000262260437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C32896092","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189447","display_name":"Risk management","level":2,"score":0.304500013589859},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.3021000027656555},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.29739999771118164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148220186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7111912","display_name":"Outcome (game theory)","level":2,"score":0.2549999952316284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195094911","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14167904","display_name":"Process management","level":1,"score":0.25450000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.25200000405311584}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1693446","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1693446","pdf_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1693446/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:41608034","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41608034","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in artificial intelligence","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:862c986186da4931bbf1a39d281e7fa7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/862c986186da4931bbf1a39d281e7fa7","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, Vol 8 (2026)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:12835249","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12835249/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Front Artif Intell","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1693446","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1693446","pdf_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1693446/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8764770030975342,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education"}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335787","display_name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7123342624.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7123342624.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":20,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2147485520","https://openalex.org/W2172255378","https://openalex.org/W2615435182","https://openalex.org/W3089309273","https://openalex.org/W4220836339","https://openalex.org/W4323050332","https://openalex.org/W4353015048","https://openalex.org/W4362471026","https://openalex.org/W4366823098","https://openalex.org/W4375955709","https://openalex.org/W4390146677","https://openalex.org/W4392011999","https://openalex.org/W4393935425","https://openalex.org/W4396868781","https://openalex.org/W4398140833","https://openalex.org/W4398614387","https://openalex.org/W4400657362","https://openalex.org/W4400831181","https://openalex.org/W4401916332","https://openalex.org/W4403680361"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Background":[0],"The":[1],"integration":[2],"of":[3,28,44,63],"large":[4],"language":[5,244],"models":[6,146],"(LLMs)":[7],"into":[8],"cardio-oncology":[9,56,74,105,227],"patient":[10,57,264],"education":[11,58,265],"holds":[12],"promise":[13],"for":[14,53,107,173,263],"addressing":[15],"the":[16,26,42,61],"critical":[17],"gap":[18],"in":[19,32,55,141,158,266],"accessible,":[20],"accurate,":[21],"and":[22,59,88,111,114,135,164,237,254],"patient-friendly":[23],"information.":[24],"However,":[25],"performance":[27,43],"publicly":[29],"available":[30,220],"LLMs":[31,46,81,221,262],"this":[33],"specialized":[34,255],"domain":[35],"remains":[36],"underexplored.":[37],"Objectives":[38],"This":[39],"study":[40],"evaluates":[41],"three":[45,80],"(ChatGPT-4,":[47,82],"Kimi,":[48,83],"DouBao)":[49],"act":[50],"as":[51],"assistants":[52],"physicians":[54],"examines":[60],"impact":[62],"prompt":[64,240],"engineering":[65],"on":[66],"response":[67],"quality.":[68],"Methods":[69],"Twenty":[70],"standardized":[71],"questions":[72],"spanning":[73],"topics":[75],"were":[76,101,116,129,143],"posed":[77],"twice":[78],"to":[79,93,210,226,239,260],"DouBao):":[84],"once":[85,89],"without":[86],"prompts":[87,198],"with":[90],"a":[91,119],"directive":[92],"simplify":[94],"language,":[95],"generating":[96],"240":[97,126],"responses.":[98,155],"These":[99],"responses":[100,225],"evaluated":[102],"by":[103,234],"four":[104],"specialists":[106],"accuracy,":[108],"comprehensiveness,":[109],"helpfulness,":[110],"practicality.":[112],"Readability":[113,182],"complexity":[115,200],"assessed":[117],"using":[118],"Chinese":[120],"text":[121],"analysis":[122],"framework.":[123],"Results":[124],"Among":[125],"responses,":[127],"63.3%":[128],"rated":[130],"\u201ccorrect,\u201d":[131],"35.0%":[132],"\u201cpartially":[133],"correct,\u201d":[134],"1.7%":[136],"\u201cincorrect.\u201d":[137],"No":[138],"significant":[139],"differences":[140],"accuracy":[142],"observed":[144],"between":[145],"(":[147,160,166],"p":[148,161,167,179,215],"=":[149,162],"0.26).":[150],"Kimi":[151],"demonstrated":[152],"no":[153,194],"incorrect":[154],"Significant":[156],"declines":[157],"comprehensiveness":[159,236],"0.03)":[163],"helpfulness":[165],"<":[168,180,216],"0.01)":[169],"occurred":[170],"post-prompt,":[171],"particularly":[172],"DouBao":[174],"(accuracy:":[175],"57.5%":[176],"vs.":[177],"7.5%,":[178],"0.01).":[181,217],"metrics":[183],"(readability":[184],"age,":[185],"difficulty":[186],"score,":[187],"total":[188],"word":[189],"count,":[190],"sentence":[191],"length)":[192],"showed":[193],"inter-model":[195],"differences,":[196],"but":[197],"reduced":[199],"(e.g.,":[201],"DouBao\u2019s":[202],"readability":[203],"age":[204],"decreased":[205],"from":[206],"12.9":[207],"\u00b1":[208,212],"0.8":[209],"10.1":[211],"1.2":[213],"years,":[214],"Conclusion":[218],"Publicly":[219],"provide":[222],"largely":[223],"accurate":[224],"questions,":[228],"yet":[229],"their":[230],"utility":[231],"is":[232],"constrained":[233],"inconsistent":[235],"sensitivity":[238],"design.":[241],"While":[242],"simplifying":[243],"improves":[245],"readability,":[246],"it":[247],"risks":[248],"compromising":[249],"clinical":[250],"relevance.":[251],"Tailored":[252],"fine-tuning":[253],"evaluation":[256],"frameworks":[257],"are":[258],"essential":[259],"optimize":[261],"cardio-oncology.":[267]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2026-01-14T00:00:00"}