{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414983100","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303","title":"There are significant differences among artificial intelligence large language models when answering scientific questions","display_name":"There are significant differences among artificial intelligence large language models when answering scientific questions","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-10-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414983100","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41141903"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1664303","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303","pdf_url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303/pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071248651","display_name":"Francisco Javier \u00c1lvarez\u2010Mart\u00ednez","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5275-1282"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I111262870","display_name":"Universitat de Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez d'Elx","ror":"https://ror.org/01azzms13","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Francisco Javier \u00c1lvarez-Mart\u00ednez","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Research, Development and Innovation in Health Biotechnology of Elche (IDiBE), Universitas Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez (UMH), Elche, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Research, Development and Innovation in Health Biotechnology of Elche (IDiBE), Universitas Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez (UMH), Elche, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055948176","display_name":"Luis Miguel Pedrero Esteban","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4949-2360"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210165411","display_name":"Centro de Investigaciones Energ\u00e9ticas, Medioambientales y Tecnol\u00f3gicas","ror":"https://ror.org/05xx77y52","country_code":"ES","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210165411"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Luis Esteban","raw_affiliation_strings":["CEDER-CIEMAT, Centro de Desarrollo de Energ\u00edas Renovables-Centro de Investigaciones Energ\u00e9ticas Medioambientales y Tecnol\u00f3gicas, Lubia, Spain","CEDER-CIEMAT, Centro de Desarrollo de Energ\u00edas Renovables\u2014Centro de Investigaciones Energ\u00e9ticas Medioambientales y Tecnol\u00f3gicas, Lubia, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"CEDER-CIEMAT, Centro de Desarrollo de Energ\u00edas Renovables-Centro de Investigaciones Energ\u00e9ticas Medioambientales y Tecnol\u00f3gicas, Lubia, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210165411"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"CEDER-CIEMAT, Centro de Desarrollo de Energ\u00edas Renovables\u2014Centro de Investigaciones Energ\u00e9ticas Medioambientales y Tecnol\u00f3gicas, Lubia, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210165411"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5069103569","display_name":"Lucas Frungillo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0693-881X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I98677209","display_name":"University of Edinburgh","ror":"https://ror.org/01nrxwf90","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I98677209"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lucas Frungillo","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Biological Sciences, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Biological Sciences, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98677209"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5033180937","display_name":"Estefan\u00eda Butassi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-7248-5357"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4141589","display_name":"National University of Rosario","ror":"https://ror.org/02tphfq59","country_code":"AR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4141589"]}],"countries":["AR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Estefan\u00eda Butassi","raw_affiliation_strings":["\u00c1rea Farmacognosia, Facultad de Ciencias Bioqu\u00edmicas y Farmac\u00e9uticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"\u00c1rea Farmacognosia, Facultad de Ciencias Bioqu\u00edmicas y Farmac\u00e9uticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4141589"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119823349","display_name":"Alessandro Zambon","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2025-9813"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I9360294","display_name":"University of Bologna","ror":"https://ror.org/01111rn36","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I9360294"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alessandro Zambon","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I9360294"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108968726","display_name":"Mar\u00eda Herranz-L\u00f3pez","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I111262870","display_name":"Universitat de Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez d'Elx","ror":"https://ror.org/01azzms13","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mar\u00eda Herranz-L\u00f3pez","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Research, Development and Innovation in Health Biotechnology of Elche (IDiBE), Universitas Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez (UMH), Elche, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Research, Development and Innovation in Health Biotechnology of Elche (IDiBE), Universitas Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez (UMH), Elche, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022114614","display_name":"Mario Aranda","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7846-9149"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162148367","display_name":"Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Chile","ror":"https://ror.org/04teye511","country_code":"CL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162148367"]}],"countries":["CL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mario Aranda","raw_affiliation_strings":["Departamento de Qu\u00edmica y Farmacia, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Chile, Macul, Santiago, Chile"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Departamento de Qu\u00edmica y Farmacia, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Chile, Macul, Santiago, Chile","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162148367"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5078017924","display_name":"Federica Pollastro","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0949-2799"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I123338534","display_name":"Universit\u00e0 degli Studi del Piemonte Orientale \u201cAmedeo Avogadro\u201d","ror":"https://ror.org/04387x656","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I123338534"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Federica Pollastro","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Eastern Piedmont, Novara, Italy"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Eastern Piedmont, Novara, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I123338534"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119916329","display_name":"Anne Sylvie Tixier","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I198415970","display_name":"Universit\u00e9 d'Avignon et des Pays de Vaucluse","ror":"https://ror.org/00mfpxb84","country_code":"FR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I198415970"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210088668","display_name":"Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement","ror":"https://ror.org/003vg9w96","country_code":"FR","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210088668"]}],"countries":["FR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Anne Sylvie Tixier","raw_affiliation_strings":["Avignon Universit\u00e9, INRAE, UMR SQPOV, Avignon, France"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Avignon Universit\u00e9, INRAE, UMR SQPOV, Avignon, France","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I198415970","https://openalex.org/I4210088668"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5049852240","display_name":"J.V. Garc\u00eda\u2010P\u00e9rez","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9993-4246"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60053951","display_name":"Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia","ror":"https://ror.org/01460j859","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60053951"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jose V. Garcia-Perez","raw_affiliation_strings":["Instituto de Ingenier\u00eda de Alimentos-FoodUPV, Universitat Polit\u00e9cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Valencia, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Instituto de Ingenier\u00eda de Alimentos-FoodUPV, Universitat Polit\u00e9cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Valencia, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60053951"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5068784555","display_name":"David Arra\u00e9z-Rom\u00e1n","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1267-6676"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I173304897","display_name":"Universidad de Granada","ror":"https://ror.org/04njjy449","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I173304897"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"David Arr\u00e1ez-Rom\u00e1n","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Granada, Granada, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Granada, Granada, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I173304897"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103198935","display_name":"Andrew C. Ross","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3401-0306"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130828816","display_name":"University of Leeds","ror":"https://ror.org/024mrxd33","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130828816"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Andrew Ross","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130828816"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5109540440","display_name":"Pedro Mena","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I124601658","display_name":"University of Parma","ror":"https://ror.org/02k7wn190","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124601658"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pedro Mena","raw_affiliation_strings":["Human Nutrition Unit, Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parma, Italy"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Human Nutrition Unit, Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parma, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I124601658"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5091786663","display_name":"RuAngelie Edrada\u2010Ebel","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2420-1117"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","display_name":"University of Strathclyde","ror":"https://ror.org/00n3w3b69","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ru Angelie Edrada-Ebel","raw_affiliation_strings":["Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119916325","display_name":"James Lyng","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I100930933","display_name":"University College Dublin","ror":"https://ror.org/05m7pjf47","country_code":"IE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I100930933"]}],"countries":["IE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"James Lyng","raw_affiliation_strings":["UCD School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"UCD School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I100930933"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5081661175","display_name":"Vicente Micol","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8089-0696"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I111262870","display_name":"Universitat de Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez d'Elx","ror":"https://ror.org/01azzms13","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vicente Micol","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Research, Development and Innovation in Health Biotechnology of Elche (IDiBE), Universitas Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez (UMH), Elche, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Research, Development and Innovation in Health Biotechnology of Elche (IDiBE), Universitas Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez (UMH), Elche, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090256175","display_name":"Fernando Borr\u00e1s","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5519-4573"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I111262870","display_name":"Universitat de Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez d'Elx","ror":"https://ror.org/01azzms13","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Fernando Borr\u00e1s-Rocher","raw_affiliation_strings":["Departamento de Estad\u00edstica, Matem\u00e1ticas e Inform\u00e1tica, Universidad Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez, Elche, Alicante, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Departamento de Estad\u00edstica, Matem\u00e1ticas e Inform\u00e1tica, Universidad Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez, Elche, Alicante, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062347407","display_name":"Enrique Barraj\u00f3n\u2010Catal\u00e1n","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8113-0795"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I111262870","display_name":"Universitat de Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez d'Elx","ror":"https://ror.org/01azzms13","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Enrique Barraj\u00f3n-Catal\u00e1n","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Research, Development and Innovation in Health Biotechnology of Elche (IDiBE), Universitas Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez (UMH), Elche, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Research, Development and Innovation in Health Biotechnology of Elche (IDiBE), Universitas Miguel Hern\u00e1ndez (UMH), Elche, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":7,"institutions_distinct_count":18,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5062347407"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I111262870"],"apc_list":{"value":1150,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1150},"apc_paid":{"value":1150,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1150},"fwci":0.8815,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.80501513,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"8","issue":null,"first_page":"1664303","last_page":"1664303"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.8948000073432922,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.8948000073432922,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10206","display_name":"Meta-analysis and systematic reviews","score":0.019500000402331352,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1804","display_name":"Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13910","display_name":"Computational and Text Analysis Methods","score":0.0071000000461936,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3300","display_name":"General Social Sciences"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/generalizability-theory","display_name":"Generalizability theory","score":0.7360000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/focus","display_name":"Focus (optics)","score":0.5809999704360962},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sample","display_name":"Sample (material)","score":0.5056999921798706},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scientific-reasoning","display_name":"Scientific reasoning","score":0.46149998903274536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/focus-group","display_name":"Focus group","score":0.2736000120639801}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27158222","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5532422","display_name":"Generalizability theory","level":2,"score":0.7360000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192209626","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190909","display_name":"Focus (optics)","level":2,"score":0.5809999704360962},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5115000009536743},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C198531522","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q485146","display_name":"Sample (material)","level":2,"score":0.5056999921798706},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.47589999437332153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2992562121","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3817808","display_name":"Scientific reasoning","level":2,"score":0.46149998903274536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.4187000095844269},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.3434000015258789},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C539667460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2414942","display_name":"Management science","level":1,"score":0.31839999556541443},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55587333","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1133029","display_name":"Engineering ethics","level":1,"score":0.31150001287460327},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.28610000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56995899","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1126687","display_name":"Focus group","level":2,"score":0.2736000120639801},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.26930001378059387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2986817661","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185698","display_name":"Research methodology","level":3,"score":0.26809999346733093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44291984","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1074173","display_name":"Question answering","level":2,"score":0.2653999924659729},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138379479","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1116876","display_name":"Scientific modelling","level":2,"score":0.25859999656677246}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":7,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1664303","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303","pdf_url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:41141903","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41141903","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in artificial intelligence","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.ed.ac.uk:openaire/7d16eb50-91ad-4f9f-88a3-025153a11b49","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/7d16eb50-91ad-4f9f-88a3-025153a11b49","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400321","display_name":"Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I98677209","host_organization_name":"University of Edinburgh","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I98677209"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"\u00c1lvarez-Mart\u00ednez, F J, Esteban, L, Frungillo, L, Butassi, E, Zambon, A, Herranz-L\u00f3pez, M, Aranda, M, Pollastro, F, Tixier, A S, Garcia-Perez, J V, Arr\u00e1ez-Rom\u00e1n, D, Ross, A, Mena, P, Edrada-Ebel, R A, Lyng, J, Micol, V, Borr\u00e1s-Rocher, F & Barraj\u00f3n-Catal\u00e1n, E 2025, 'There are significant differences among artificial intelligence large language models when answering scientific questions', Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, vol. 8, 1664303. https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"},{"id":"pmh:oai:cris.unibo.it:11585/1026971","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303/full#h7","pdf_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402579","display_name":"Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Universit\u00e0 di Bologna)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210117483","host_organization_name":"Istituto di Ematologia di Bologna","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210117483"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:HAL:hal-05352091v1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-05352091","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402512","display_name":"HAL (Le Centre pour la Communication Scientifique Directe)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1294671590","host_organization_name":"Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1294671590"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 2025, 8, ⟨10.3389/frai.2025.1664303⟩","raw_type":"Journal articles"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:cd66f3036ca24e1483b9a1bc5f6aa33c","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/cd66f3036ca24e1483b9a1bc5f6aa33c","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, Vol 8 (2025)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:europepmc.org:11355460","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/12547693","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400806","display_name":"Europe PMC (PubMed Central)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1303153112","host_organization_name":"European Bioinformatics Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1303153112"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1664303","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303","pdf_url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence/articles/10.3389/frai.2025.1664303/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2805646850","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"CB12/03/30038","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334923","funder_display_name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4694513774","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"PROMETEO/2021/059","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321864","funder_display_name":"Generalitat Valenciana"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","display_name":"European Commission","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321837","display_name":"Ministerio de Econom\u00eda y Competitividad","ror":"https://ror.org/034900433"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321864","display_name":"Generalitat Valenciana","ror":"https://ror.org/0097mvx21"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334923","display_name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III","ror":"https://ror.org/00ca2c886"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4414983100.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":26,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W4281775820","https://openalex.org/W4282003828","https://openalex.org/W4321605350","https://openalex.org/W4366262984","https://openalex.org/W4366989878","https://openalex.org/W4380997384","https://openalex.org/W4386826322","https://openalex.org/W4389148698","https://openalex.org/W4389421203","https://openalex.org/W4390191916","https://openalex.org/W4390663110","https://openalex.org/W4391973028","https://openalex.org/W4393231947","https://openalex.org/W4399311655","https://openalex.org/W4400218600","https://openalex.org/W4400527883","https://openalex.org/W4400615258","https://openalex.org/W4401083855","https://openalex.org/W4401527088","https://openalex.org/W4401821687","https://openalex.org/W4401955911","https://openalex.org/W4402452705","https://openalex.org/W4403579436","https://openalex.org/W4408226143","https://openalex.org/W4408711855","https://openalex.org/W4412889752"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Introduction:":[0],"This":[1],"study":[2,151],"investigates":[3],"the":[4,60,71,153,180,188,192,195],"efficacy":[5],"of":[6,20,48,124,187,194],"large":[7],"language":[8],"models":[9,45,109],"(LLMs)":[10],"for":[11,105,155,158,165],"generating":[12],"accurate":[13],"scientific":[14,41,106,170],"responses":[15],"through":[16],"a":[17,132],"comparative":[18],"evaluation":[19],"five":[21],"prominent":[22],"free":[23],"models:":[24],"Claude":[25,55,100],"3.5":[26,56,101],"Sonnet,":[27],"Gemini,":[28,66],"ChatGPT":[29],"4o,":[30],"Mistral":[31],"Large":[32],"2,":[33],"and":[34,52,85,129,145,161,184],"Llama":[35],"3.1":[36],"70B.":[37],"Methods:":[38],"Sixteen":[39],"expert":[40],"reviewers":[42],"assessed":[43],"these":[44],"in":[46,169],"terms":[47],"depth,":[49],"accuracy,":[50],"relevance,":[51],"clarity.":[53],"Results:":[54],"Sonnet":[57,102],"emerged":[58],"as":[59,99,179],"highest":[61],"scoring":[62],"model,":[63],"followed":[64],"by":[65],"with":[67,141,177],"notable":[68],"variability":[69],"among":[70],"other":[72,108],"models.":[73],"Additionally,":[74],"retrieval-augmented":[75],"generation":[76],"(RAG)":[77],"techniques":[78],"were":[79,87],"applied":[80],"to":[81,89,118,143],"improve":[82,90],"LLM":[83],"performance,":[84],"prompts":[86],"refined":[88],"answers.":[91],"The":[92,150],"results":[93],"indicate":[94],"that":[95],"although":[96],"LLMs":[97,160],"such":[98],"have":[103],"potential":[104],"tasks,":[107],"may":[110],"require":[111],"more":[112],"development":[113],"or":[114],"additional":[115],"prompt":[116],"engineering":[117],"reach":[119],"comparable":[120],"accuracy.":[121],"Reviewers'":[122],"perceptions":[123],"artificial":[125],"intelligence":[126],"(AI)":[127],"utility":[128],"trustworthiness":[130],"showed":[131],"positive":[133],"shift":[134],"after":[135],"evaluation.":[136],"However,":[137],"ethical":[138,162],"concerns,":[139],"particularly":[140],"respect":[142],"transparency":[144],"disclosure,":[146],"remained":[147],"consistent.":[148],"Discussion:":[149],"highlights":[152],"need":[154],"structured":[156],"frameworks":[157],"evaluating":[159],"considerations":[163],"essential":[164],"responsible":[166],"AI":[167],"integration":[168],"research.":[171],"These":[172],"findings":[173],"should":[174],"be":[175],"interpreted":[176],"caution,":[178],"limited":[181],"sample":[182],"size":[183],"domain-specific":[185],"focus":[186],"exam":[189],"questions":[190],"restrict":[191],"generalizability":[193],"results.":[196]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-06-12T08:23:45.883708","created_date":"2025-10-09T00:00:00"}