{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4317932349","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2023.1098982","title":"How to train a self-driving vehicle: On the added value (or lack thereof) of curriculum learning and replay buffers","display_name":"How to train a self-driving vehicle: On the added value (or lack thereof) of curriculum learning and replay buffers","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-01-25","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4317932349","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2023.1098982","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36762255"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2023.1098982","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2023.1098982","pdf_url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frai.2023.1098982/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frai.2023.1098982/pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5026244287","display_name":"Sara Mahmoud","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2855-2782"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I205158640","display_name":"University of Sk\u00f6vde","ror":"https://ror.org/051mrsz47","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205158640"]}],"countries":["SE"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Sara Mahmoud","raw_affiliation_strings":["Interaction Lab, School of Informatics, University of Sk\u00f6vde, Sk\u00f6vde, Sweden"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Interaction Lab, School of Informatics, University of Sk\u00f6vde, Sk\u00f6vde, Sweden","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I205158640"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083643013","display_name":"Erik Billing","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-9342"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I205158640","display_name":"University of Sk\u00f6vde","ror":"https://ror.org/051mrsz47","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205158640"]}],"countries":["SE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Erik Billing","raw_affiliation_strings":["Interaction Lab, School of Informatics, University of Sk\u00f6vde, Sk\u00f6vde, Sweden"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Interaction Lab, School of Informatics, University of Sk\u00f6vde, Sk\u00f6vde, Sweden","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I205158640"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5040723528","display_name":"Henrik Svensson","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3129-4892"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I205158640","display_name":"University of Sk\u00f6vde","ror":"https://ror.org/051mrsz47","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205158640"]}],"countries":["SE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Henrik Svensson","raw_affiliation_strings":["Interaction Lab, School of Informatics, University of Sk\u00f6vde, Sk\u00f6vde, Sweden"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Interaction Lab, School of Informatics, University of Sk\u00f6vde, Sk\u00f6vde, Sweden","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I205158640"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5081506012","display_name":"Serge Thill","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1177-4119"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I145872427","display_name":"Radboud University Nijmegen","ror":"https://ror.org/016xsfp80","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I145872427"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Serge Thill","raw_affiliation_strings":["Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I145872427"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5026244287"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I205158640"],"apc_list":{"value":2125,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2125},"apc_paid":{"value":1868,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2014},"fwci":0.1308,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.52544802,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":94},"biblio":{"volume":"6","issue":null,"first_page":"1098982","last_page":"1098982"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10462","display_name":"Reinforcement Learning in Robotics","score":0.9955000281333923,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10462","display_name":"Reinforcement Learning in Robotics","score":0.9955000281333923,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.992900013923645,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11942","display_name":"Transportation and Mobility Innovations","score":0.900600016117096,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/curriculum","display_name":"Curriculum","score":0.6654109954833984},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/value","display_name":"Value (mathematics)","score":0.49540841579437256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/self-driving","display_name":"Self driving","score":0.4462835490703583},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.44507184624671936},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics-education","display_name":"Mathematics education","score":0.37774577736854553},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/aeronautics","display_name":"Aeronautics","score":0.37060749530792236},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.34739160537719727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.34512513875961304},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/automotive-engineering","display_name":"Automotive engineering","score":0.3066543936729431},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pedagogy","display_name":"Pedagogy","score":0.16407281160354614},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.14148712158203125}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47177190","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207137","display_name":"Curriculum","level":2,"score":0.6654109954833984},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776291640","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2912517","display_name":"Value (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.49540841579437256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3018391801","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q741490","display_name":"Self driving","level":2,"score":0.4462835490703583},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.44507184624671936},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.37774577736854553},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178802073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8421","display_name":"Aeronautics","level":1,"score":0.37060749530792236},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.34739160537719727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.34512513875961304},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C171146098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124192","display_name":"Automotive engineering","level":1,"score":0.3066543936729431},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19417346","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7922","display_name":"Pedagogy","level":1,"score":0.16407281160354614},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.14148712158203125}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":7,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2023.1098982","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2023.1098982","pdf_url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frai.2023.1098982/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:36762255","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36762255","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in artificial intelligence","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:DiVA.org:his-22215","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:his:diva-22215","pdf_url":"https://his.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1732411/FULLTEXT01","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401559","display_name":"KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:9905678","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/9905678","pdf_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9905678/pdf/frai-06-1098982.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Front Artif Intell","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:repository.ubn.ru.nl:2066/289423","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/handle/2066/289423","pdf_url":"https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/289423/1/289423.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401067","display_name":"Radboud Repository (Radboud University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I145872427","host_organization_name":"Radboud University Nijmegen","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I145872427"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Article / Letter to editor"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:5c2bd8fa04854669bf505d7a121f19ca","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/5c2bd8fa04854669bf505d7a121f19ca","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, Vol 6 (2023)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:ru:oai:repository.ubn.ru.nl:2066/289423","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/2066/289423","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401843","display_name":"Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1322597698","host_organization_name":"Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1322597698"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications, 6","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3389/frai.2023.1098982","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2023.1098982","pdf_url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frai.2023.1098982/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210197006","display_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2624-8212","issn":["2624-8212"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education","score":0.7400000095367432}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335254","display_name":"Horizon 2020","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4317932349.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":58,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1595483645","https://openalex.org/W1870822514","https://openalex.org/W1980035368","https://openalex.org/W2007347635","https://openalex.org/W2037091700","https://openalex.org/W2043369301","https://openalex.org/W2043385819","https://openalex.org/W2110375253","https://openalex.org/W2115579991","https://openalex.org/W2145339207","https://openalex.org/W2146438891","https://openalex.org/W2151834591","https://openalex.org/W2173248099","https://openalex.org/W2174983451","https://openalex.org/W2201581102","https://openalex.org/W2296073425","https://openalex.org/W2326235613","https://openalex.org/W2342840547","https://openalex.org/W2346736747","https://openalex.org/W2483814582","https://openalex.org/W2575705757","https://openalex.org/W2583993537","https://openalex.org/W2740067745","https://openalex.org/W2741594138","https://openalex.org/W2772721022","https://openalex.org/W2788388592","https://openalex.org/W2795697038","https://openalex.org/W2795843265","https://openalex.org/W2951954464","https://openalex.org/W2963262099","https://openalex.org/W2963296584","https://openalex.org/W2970393539","https://openalex.org/W2981207549","https://openalex.org/W2990618859","https://openalex.org/W2999816729","https://openalex.org/W3009593063","https://openalex.org/W3012544020","https://openalex.org/W3088310808","https://openalex.org/W3100944043","https://openalex.org/W3120778962","https://openalex.org/W3144534105","https://openalex.org/W3173514854","https://openalex.org/W4214717370","https://openalex.org/W4285227658","https://openalex.org/W4289232706","https://openalex.org/W4298625160","https://openalex.org/W4298857966","https://openalex.org/W4301761856","https://openalex.org/W4320013936","https://openalex.org/W6639088027","https://openalex.org/W6687681856","https://openalex.org/W6703271639","https://openalex.org/W6747909518","https://openalex.org/W6748554570","https://openalex.org/W6755923498","https://openalex.org/W6760278398","https://openalex.org/W6767047803","https://openalex.org/W6775683342"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3047375952","https://openalex.org/W4288634015","https://openalex.org/W3138110502","https://openalex.org/W2909676666","https://openalex.org/W2348562106","https://openalex.org/W2370820329","https://openalex.org/W2370554813","https://openalex.org/W2387560707","https://openalex.org/W2363525455","https://openalex.org/W4312355418"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Learning":[0],"from":[1],"only":[2],"real-world":[3],"collected":[4],"data":[5,21,80,103,124,144,207,294],"can":[6,233,241],"be":[7,234],"unrealistic":[8],"and":[9,29,167,257,300],"time":[10],"consuming":[11],"in":[12,94,161,200,253,274],"many":[13],"scenario.":[14],"One":[15],"alternative":[16],"is":[17,138,277],"to":[18,25,32,77,99,120],"use":[19,152],"synthetic":[20],"as":[22,67,93,111,113,244,297],"learning":[23,56,148,176,186,217],"environments":[24],"learn":[26],"rare":[27],"situations":[28],"replay":[30,118,193],"buffers":[31],"speed":[33],"up":[34],"the":[35,42,46,49,52,64,72,87,105,125,133,142,192,221,237,248,251,255,262,264,283,290,301,309],"learning.":[36],"In":[37,130,236,281],"this":[38,136,286],"work,":[39],"we":[40,210,240],"examine":[41],"hypothesis":[43],"of":[44,48,54,74,90,115,135,141,206,215,223,247,250,285,292,303],"how":[45],"creation":[47],"environment":[50,60],"affects":[51],"training":[53,79,102,143,231],"reinforcement":[55,185],"agent":[57,106,126],"through":[58],"auto-generated":[59],"mechanisms.":[61],"We":[62,70,85,150],"take":[63],"autonomous":[65,162],"vehicle":[66,163],"an":[68,179,305],"application.":[69],"compare":[71],"effect":[73,199],"two":[75,153],"approaches":[76,209],"generate":[78],"for":[81,308],"artificial":[82],"cognitive":[83],"agents.":[84],"consider":[86],"added":[88],"value":[89],"curriculum":[91,175,216,298],"learning-just":[92],"human":[95],"learning-as":[96],"a":[97,117,183,197,224,245,271],"way":[98],"structure":[100],"novel":[101],"that":[104,114,155,174],"has":[107,127,196],"not":[108,203,278],"seen":[109,128],"before":[110],"well":[112],"using":[116],"buffer":[119,194],"train":[121],"further":[122],"on":[123,139,147,160,220,261],"before.":[129],"other":[131,275],"words,":[132],"focus":[134],"paper":[137,287],"characteristics":[140],"rather":[145],"than":[146],"algorithms.":[149],"therefore":[151],"tasks":[154],"are":[156],"commonly":[157],"trained":[158],"early":[159],"research:":[164],"lane":[165],"keeping":[166],"pedestrian":[168],"avoidance.":[169],"Our":[170],"main":[171],"results":[172,284],"show":[173],"indeed":[177],"offers":[178],"additional":[180],"benefit":[181,214],"over":[182],"vanilla":[184],"approach":[187],"(using":[188],"Deep-Q":[189],"Learning),":[190],"but":[191],"actually":[195],"detrimental":[198],"most":[201],"(but":[202],"all)":[204],"combinations":[205],"generation":[208],"considered":[211],"here.":[212],"The":[213],"does":[218],"depend":[219],"existence":[222],"well-defined":[225],"difficulty":[226,272],"metric":[227,273,307],"with":[228],"which":[229,254],"various":[230],"scenarios":[232,276],"ordered.":[235],"lane-keeping":[238],"task,":[239],"define":[242],"it":[243,267],"function":[246],"curvature":[249],"road,":[252,263],"steeper":[256],"more":[258,265],"occurring":[259],"curves":[260],"difficult":[266],"gets.":[268],"Defining":[269],"such":[270,296],"always":[279],"trivial.":[280],"general,":[282],"emphasize":[288],"both":[289],"importance":[291,302],"considering":[293],"characterization,":[295],"learning,":[299],"defining":[304],"appropriate":[306],"task.":[310]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-08-01T09:00:35.917206","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
