{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4413164803","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561","title":"MeetSafe: enhancing robustness against white-box adversarial examples","display_name":"MeetSafe: enhancing robustness against white-box adversarial examples","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-08-13","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4413164803","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561","pdf_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/computer-science/articles/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210211086","display_name":"Frontiers in Computer Science","issn_l":"2624-9898","issn":["2624-9898"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/computer-science/articles/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561/pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119287257","display_name":"Ruben Stenhuis","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I98358874","display_name":"Delft University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02e2c7k09","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ruben Stenhuis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cybersecurity Group, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cybersecurity Group, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046760448","display_name":"Dazhuang Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7250-1264"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I98358874","display_name":"Delft University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02e2c7k09","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Dazhuang Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cybersecurity Group, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cybersecurity Group, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005473976","display_name":"Yanqi Qiao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0180-0096"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I98358874","display_name":"Delft University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02e2c7k09","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yanqi Qiao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cybersecurity Group, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cybersecurity Group, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5063847107","display_name":"Mauro Conti","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3612-1934"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I138689650","display_name":"University of Padua","ror":"https://ror.org/00240q980","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I138689650"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mauro Conti","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Mathematics, SPRITZ Security and Privacy Research Group, University of Padua, Padua, Italy"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mathematics, SPRITZ Security and Privacy Research Group, University of Padua, Padua, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I138689650"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5043264795","display_name":"Manos Panaousis","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55060895","display_name":"University of Greenwich","ror":"https://ror.org/00bmj0a71","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55060895"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Manos Panaousis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Engineering and Science, School of Computing and Mathematical Sciences, Center for Sustainable Cyber Security, University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Engineering and Science, School of Computing and Mathematical Sciences, Center for Sustainable Cyber Security, University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55060895"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5001485404","display_name":"Kaitai Liang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0262-7678"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I98358874","display_name":"Delft University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02e2c7k09","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"]}],"countries":["NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kaitai Liang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cybersecurity Group, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cybersecurity Group, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5046760448"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98358874"],"apc_list":{"value":1150,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1150},"apc_paid":{"value":1150,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1150},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.09652964,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"7","issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11512","display_name":"Anomaly Detection Techniques and Applications","score":0.9822999835014343,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11515","display_name":"Bacillus and Francisella bacterial research","score":0.9387000203132629,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1312","display_name":"Molecular Biology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/13","display_name":"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adversarial-system","display_name":"Adversarial system","score":0.8251096606254578},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.718349814414978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/white-box","display_name":"White box","score":0.557917058467865},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/white","display_name":"White (mutation)","score":0.5370570421218872},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.479579359292984},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.42189323902130127},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.16653981804847717},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/biology","display_name":"Biology","score":0.04478529095649719}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37736160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1801315","display_name":"Adversarial system","level":2,"score":0.8251096606254578},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.718349814414978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180932941","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q997233","display_name":"White box","level":2,"score":0.557917058467865},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56273599","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3122841","display_name":"White (mutation)","level":3,"score":0.5370570421218872},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.479579359292984},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.42189323902130127},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.16653981804847717},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.04478529095649719},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55493867","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7094","display_name":"Biochemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104317684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187","display_name":"Gene","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561","pdf_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/computer-science/articles/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210211086","display_name":"Frontiers in Computer Science","issn_l":"2624-9898","issn":["2624-9898"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:gala.gre.ac.uk:51601","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7306-4062","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401244","display_name":"Greenwich Academic Literature Archive (University of Greenwich)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I55060895","host_organization_name":"University of Greenwich","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55060895"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"PeerReviewed"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:7df7ac2116844d97933fb1c175dd06a7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/7df7ac2116844d97933fb1c175dd06a7","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Computer Science, Vol 7 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561","pdf_url":"https://public-pages-files-2025.frontiersin.org/journals/computer-science/articles/10.3389/fcomp.2025.1631561/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210211086","display_name":"Frontiers in Computer Science","issn_l":"2624-9898","issn":["2624-9898"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320527","host_organization_name":"Frontiers Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320527"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Frontiers Media"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334322","display_name":"HORIZON EUROPE Framework Programme","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4413164803.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":53,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1982471090","https://openalex.org/W2551176409","https://openalex.org/W2592929672","https://openalex.org/W2607219512","https://openalex.org/W2618492571","https://openalex.org/W2797455600","https://openalex.org/W2962759300","https://openalex.org/W2963564844","https://openalex.org/W2971180473","https://openalex.org/W2990138404","https://openalex.org/W3024886890","https://openalex.org/W3102720581","https://openalex.org/W3105009650","https://openalex.org/W3175402282","https://openalex.org/W3200113267","https://openalex.org/W3215887389","https://openalex.org/W4205616158","https://openalex.org/W4241307704","https://openalex.org/W4249502209","https://openalex.org/W4255556797","https://openalex.org/W4293584023","https://openalex.org/W4295803779","https://openalex.org/W4301329292","https://openalex.org/W4310895557","https://openalex.org/W4413126477","https://openalex.org/W6629606793","https://openalex.org/W6637162671","https://openalex.org/W6637373629","https://openalex.org/W6640425456","https://openalex.org/W6664806561","https://openalex.org/W6677919164","https://openalex.org/W6687483927","https://openalex.org/W6690607325","https://openalex.org/W6726114608","https://openalex.org/W6731076160","https://openalex.org/W6736296761","https://openalex.org/W6744679260","https://openalex.org/W6747819456","https://openalex.org/W6748013272","https://openalex.org/W6748277150","https://openalex.org/W6748458661","https://openalex.org/W6748475379","https://openalex.org/W6752760542","https://openalex.org/W6754108890","https://openalex.org/W6757780422","https://openalex.org/W6769809410","https://openalex.org/W6772017393","https://openalex.org/W6774549192","https://openalex.org/W6784064414","https://openalex.org/W6796834496","https://openalex.org/W6799070457","https://openalex.org/W6800496746","https://openalex.org/W6810469597"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2502115930","https://openalex.org/W2482350142","https://openalex.org/W4246396837","https://openalex.org/W3126451824","https://openalex.org/W1561927205","https://openalex.org/W4297846880","https://openalex.org/W2950942529","https://openalex.org/W4324108765","https://openalex.org/W4307929675","https://openalex.org/W4285052570"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Convolutional":[0],"neural":[1],"networks":[2],"(CNNs)":[3],"are":[4,16],"vulnerable":[5],"to":[6,80,85,109],"adversarial":[7,14,38,69],"attacks":[8,20],"in":[9,128],"computer":[10],"vision":[11],"tasks.":[12],"Current":[13],"detections":[15],"ineffective":[17],"against":[18,42,201],"white-box":[19,43,205],"and":[21,36,68,75,102,114,124,149,170,196,204,208],"inefficient":[22],"when":[23],"deep":[24],"CNNs":[25],"generate":[26],"high-dimensional":[27,129],"hidden":[28,50,73,90],"features.":[29,116],"This":[30],"study":[31],"proposes":[32],"MeetSafe,":[33],"an":[34],"effective":[35],"scalable":[37],"example":[39],"(AE)":[40],"detection":[41,199],"attacks.":[44],"MeetSafe":[45,159,192],"identifies":[46],"AEs":[47,172],"using":[48,92],"critical":[49,89],"features":[51,74,91,145,169],"rather":[52],"than":[53,213],"the":[54,120,167],"entire":[55],"feature":[56,93,100,106],"space.":[57],"We":[58,87],"observe":[59],"a":[60,141,161,178,183],"non-uniform":[61],"distribution":[62],"of":[63,122,143,198],"Z-scores":[64],"between":[65],"clean":[66],"samples":[67],"examples":[70],"(AEs)":[71],"among":[72],"propose":[76,132],"two":[77],"utility":[78],"functions":[79],"select":[81],"those":[82],"most":[83],"relevant":[84],"AEs.":[86],"process":[88],"engineering":[94],"methods:":[95],"local":[96,133,179],"outlier":[97],"factor":[98],"(LOF),":[99],"squeezing,":[101],"whitening,":[103],"which":[104],"estimate":[105],"density":[107,135,153,185],"relative":[108],"its":[110,155],"k-neighbors,":[111],"reduce":[112],"redundancy,":[113],"normalize":[115],"To":[117],"deal":[118],"with":[119,146,166],"curse":[121],"dimensionality":[123],"smooth":[125],"statistical":[126],"fluctuations":[127],"features,":[130],"we":[131],"reachability":[134],"(LRD).":[136],"Our":[137],"LRD":[138],"iteratively":[139],"selects":[140],"bag":[142],"engineered":[144],"random":[147],"cardinality":[148],"quantifies":[150],"their":[151],"average":[152],"by":[154,182],"k-nearest":[156],"neighbors.":[157],"Finally,":[158],"constructs":[160],"Gaussian":[162],"Mixture":[163],"Model":[164],"(GMM)":[165],"processed":[168],"detects":[171],"if":[173],"it":[174],"is":[175],"seen":[176],"as":[177],"outlier,":[180],"shown":[181],"low":[184],"from":[186],"GMM.":[187],"Experimental":[188],"results":[189],"show":[190],"that":[191],"achieves":[193],"74%,":[194],"96%,":[195],"79%":[197],"accuracy":[200],"adaptive,":[202],"classic,":[203],"attacks,":[206],"respectively,":[207],"at":[209],"least":[210],"2.3\u00d7":[211],"faster":[212],"comparison":[214],"methods.":[215]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}