{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4415427986","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3233/faia251351","title":"Relative Drawing Identification Complexity Is Invariant to Modality in Vision-Language Models","display_name":"Relative Drawing Identification Complexity Is Invariant to Modality in Vision-Language Models","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-10-21","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4415427986","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3233/faia251351"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3233/faia251351","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3233/faia251351","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210201731","display_name":"Frontiers in artificial intelligence and applications","issn_l":"0922-6389","issn":["0922-6389","1879-8314"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications","raw_type":"book-chapter"},"type":"book-chapter","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.3233/faia251351","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5050225234","display_name":"Diogo Freitas","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2351-8676"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4387152454","display_name":"Instituto de Tecnologias Interativas","ror":"https://ror.org/011ewyt41","country_code":null,"type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141596103","https://openalex.org/I4387152454"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I58028834","display_name":"Universidade da Madeira","ror":"https://ror.org/0442zbe52","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I58028834"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I83558840","display_name":"Universidade Nova de Lisboa","ror":"https://ror.org/02xankh89","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I83558840"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Diogo Freitas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Exact Sciences and Engineering, University of Madeira, Portugal","Interactive Technologies Institute (ITI/LARSyS), Funchal, Portugal","NOVA Laboratory for Computer Science and Informatics, Caparica, Portugal"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Exact Sciences and Engineering, University of Madeira, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I58028834"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Interactive Technologies Institute (ITI/LARSyS), Funchal, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4387152454"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"NOVA Laboratory for Computer Science and Informatics, Caparica, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I83558840"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5092888792","display_name":"Brigt H\u00e5vardstun","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1034-1422"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4432739","display_name":"University of Bergen","ror":"https://ror.org/03zga2b32","country_code":"NO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4432739"]}],"countries":["NO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Brigt H\u00e5vardstun","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Norway"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Norway","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4432739"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5049707109","display_name":"Dar\u00edo Garigliotti","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0331-000X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4432739","display_name":"University of Bergen","ror":"https://ror.org/03zga2b32","country_code":"NO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4432739"]}],"countries":["NO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dar\u00edo Garigliotti","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Norway"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Norway","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4432739"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5019858728","display_name":"Jan Arne Telle","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9429-5377"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4432739","display_name":"University of Bergen","ror":"https://ror.org/03zga2b32","country_code":"NO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4432739"]}],"countries":["NO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jan Arne Telle","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Norway"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Norway","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4432739"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5050804466","display_name":"C\u00e8sar Ferri","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8975-1120"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210131846","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence Research Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/03c0ach84","country_code":"ES","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I134820265","https://openalex.org/I4210131846"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60053951","display_name":"Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia","ror":"https://ror.org/01460j859","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60053951"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"C\u00e8sar Ferri","raw_affiliation_strings":["Valencian Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Valencian Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210131846","https://openalex.org/I60053951"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5029864546","display_name":"Jos\u00e9 Hern\u00e1ndez\u2010Orallo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9746-7632"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I241749","display_name":"University of Cambridge","ror":"https://ror.org/013meh722","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I241749"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802641067","display_name":"Leverhulme Trust","ror":"https://ror.org/012mzw131","country_code":"GB","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802641067"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210131846","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence Research Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/03c0ach84","country_code":"ES","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I134820265","https://openalex.org/I4210131846"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60053951","display_name":"Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia","ror":"https://ror.org/01460j859","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60053951"]}],"countries":["ES","GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jos\u00e9 Hern\u00e1ndez-Orallo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Leverhulme Centre for the Future of Intelligence, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom","Valencian Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Leverhulme Centre for the Future of Intelligence, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802641067","https://openalex.org/I241749"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Valencian Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210131846","https://openalex.org/I60053951"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":4,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5050225234"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4387152454","https://openalex.org/I58028834","https://openalex.org/I83558840"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.58743705,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12694","display_name":"Categorization, perception, and language","score":0.6744999885559082,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12694","display_name":"Categorization, perception, and language","score":0.6744999885559082,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13310","display_name":"Subtitles and Audiovisual Media","score":0.6226000189781189,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1203","display_name":"Language and Linguistics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/12","display_name":"Arts and Humanities"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/invariant","display_name":"Invariant (physics)","score":0.48890000581741333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/property","display_name":"Property (philosophy)","score":0.4690999984741211},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/simplicity","display_name":"Simplicity","score":0.4417000114917755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/set","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","score":0.4406000077724457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/modalities","display_name":"Modalities","score":0.40400001406669617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language","display_name":"Natural language","score":0.3928999900817871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/trace","display_name":"TRACE (psycholinguistics)","score":0.36340001225471497}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.654699981212616},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.592199981212616},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190470478","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2370229","display_name":"Invariant (physics)","level":2,"score":0.48890000581741333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C189950617","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q937228","display_name":"Property (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.4690999984741211},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776372474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q508291","display_name":"Simplicity","level":2,"score":0.4417000114917755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.4406000077724457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779903281","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6888026","display_name":"Modalities","level":2,"score":0.40400001406669617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.40310001373291016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.3928999900817871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75291252","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1315756","display_name":"TRACE (psycholinguistics)","level":2,"score":0.36340001225471497},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3115412","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1194708","display_name":"Bitmap","level":2,"score":0.3278999924659729},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780226545","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6888030","display_name":"Modality (human\u2013computer interaction)","level":2,"score":0.326200008392334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.3222000002861023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778572836","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380933","display_name":"Space (punctuation)","level":2,"score":0.3176000118255615},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.30390000343322754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.29350000619888306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132964779","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2110223","display_name":"Raw data","level":2,"score":0.2833999991416931},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.271699994802475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776502983","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q690182","display_name":"Contrast (vision)","level":2,"score":0.27059999108314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.26019999384880066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.25769999623298645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780148112","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1432581","display_name":"Proxy (statistics)","level":2,"score":0.25699999928474426}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3233/faia251351","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3233/faia251351","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210201731","display_name":"Frontiers in artificial intelligence and applications","issn_l":"0922-6389","issn":["0922-6389","1879-8314"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications","raw_type":"book-chapter"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3233/faia251351","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3233/faia251351","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210201731","display_name":"Frontiers in artificial intelligence and applications","issn_l":"0922-6389","issn":["0922-6389","1879-8314"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications","raw_type":"book-chapter"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Large":[0],"language":[1],"models":[2,103],"have":[3],"become":[4],"multimodal,":[5],"and":[6,120,136],"many":[7],"of":[8,25,47,69,79,100,106,169],"them":[9],"are":[10],"said":[11],"to":[12,35,62,84],"integrate":[13],"their":[14],"modalities":[15],"using":[16,113],"common":[17],"representations.":[18,142,179],"If":[19],"this":[20,56,94],"were":[21],"true,":[22],"a":[23,26,36,44,58,72,81,104],"drawing":[24],"car":[27],"as":[28,43,118],"an":[29,173],"image,":[30],"for":[31,158],"instance,":[32],"should":[33],"map":[34],"similar":[37],"area":[38],"in":[39,57,108,123],"the":[40,48,52,67,76,88,91,98,109,145,167],"latent":[41],"space":[42],"textual":[45],"description":[46],"strokes":[49],"that":[50,74,87,129,166,176],"form":[51],"drawing.":[53],"To":[54],"explore":[55],"black-box":[59],"access":[60],"regime":[61],"these":[63],"models,":[64],"we":[65,96],"propose":[66],"use":[68],"machine":[70],"teaching,":[71],"theory":[73],"studies":[75],"minimal":[77],"set":[78],"examples":[80],"teacher":[82],"needs":[83],"choose":[85],"so":[86],"learner":[89],"captures":[90],"concept.":[92],"In":[93],"paper,":[95],"evaluate":[97],"complexity":[99],"teaching":[101,146],"vision-language":[102],"subset":[105],"objects":[107],"Quick,":[110],"Draw!":[111],"dataset":[112],"two":[114],"presentations:":[115],"raw":[116],"images":[117],"bitmaps":[119],"trace":[121],"coordinates":[122],"TikZ":[124],"format.":[125],"The":[126],"results":[127],"indicate":[128],"image-based":[130],"representations":[131],"generally":[132],"require":[133],"fewer":[134],"segments":[135],"achieve":[137],"higher":[138],"accuracy":[139],"than":[140],"coordinate-based":[141],"But,":[143],"surprisingly,":[144],"size":[147],"usually":[148],"ranks":[149],"concepts":[150,170],"similarly":[151],"across":[152],"both":[153],"modalities,":[154],"even":[155],"when":[156],"controlling":[157],"(a":[159],"human":[160],"proxy":[161],"of)":[162],"concept":[163],"priors,":[164],"suggesting":[165],"simplicity":[168],"may":[171],"be":[172],"inherent":[174],"property":[175],"transcends":[177],"modality":[178]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-03-27T05:58:40.876381","created_date":"2025-10-24T00:00:00"}