{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7139086539","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v40i40.40654","title":"Ghost in the Transformer: Detecting Model Reuse with Invariant Spectral Signatures","display_name":"Ghost in the Transformer: Detecting Model Reuse with Invariant Spectral Signatures","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-14","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7139086539","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v40i40.40654"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1609/aaai.v40i40.40654","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v40i40.40654","pdf_url":"https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/AAAI/article/download/40654/44615","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210191458","display_name":"Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2159-5399","issn":["2159-5399","2374-3468"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320058","host_organization_name":"Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320058"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence"],"type":"conference"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/AAAI/article/download/40654/44615","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5129948486","display_name":"Suqing Wang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Suqing Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Wuhan University"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wuhan University","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125252259","display_name":"Ziyang Ma","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ziyang Ma","raw_affiliation_strings":["Wuhan University"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wuhan University","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5130006862","display_name":"Li Xinyi","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Li Xinyi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Wuhan University"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wuhan University","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5002584135","display_name":"Zuchao Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0436-8446"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zuchao Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Wuhan University"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wuhan University","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5129948486"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95897709,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"40","issue":"40","first_page":"33648","last_page":"33656"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.7922999858856201,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.7922999858856201,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.0215000007301569,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11986","display_name":"Scientific Computing and Data Management","score":0.021199999377131462,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1802","display_name":"Information Systems and Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reuse","display_name":"Reuse","score":0.7121999859809875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/invariant","display_name":"Invariant (physics)","score":0.5960999727249146},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adversarial-system","display_name":"Adversarial system","score":0.5601000189781189},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intellectual-property","display_name":"Intellectual property","score":0.521399974822998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/digital-watermarking","display_name":"Digital watermarking","score":0.5015000104904175},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/property","display_name":"Property (philosophy)","score":0.48069998621940613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tracing","display_name":"Tracing","score":0.43529999256134033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/trustworthiness","display_name":"Trustworthiness","score":0.3919000029563904}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C206588197","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q846574","display_name":"Reuse","level":2,"score":0.7121999859809875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190470478","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2370229","display_name":"Invariant (physics)","level":2,"score":0.5960999727249146},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5738999843597412},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37736160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1801315","display_name":"Adversarial system","level":2,"score":0.5601000189781189},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34974158","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131257","display_name":"Intellectual property","level":2,"score":0.521399974822998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C150817343","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q875932","display_name":"Digital watermarking","level":3,"score":0.5015000104904175},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C189950617","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q937228","display_name":"Property (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.48069998621940613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.4449999928474426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138673069","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q322229","display_name":"Tracing","level":2,"score":0.43529999256134033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.40720000863075256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153701036","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q659974","display_name":"Trustworthiness","level":2,"score":0.3919000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.37070000171661377},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151635116","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193878","display_name":"Chinese remainder theorem","level":2,"score":0.3650999963283539},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777210771","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4927124","display_name":"Block (permutation group theory)","level":2,"score":0.3650999963283539},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C22789450","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420904","display_name":"Singular value decomposition","level":2,"score":0.3377000093460083},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.30799999833106995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776291640","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2912517","display_name":"Value (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.29820001125335693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.2957000136375427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780589192","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7285140","display_name":"Raising (metalworking)","level":2,"score":0.28290000557899475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51632099","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3985153","display_name":"Training set","level":2,"score":0.27570000290870667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.2671000063419342},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.26109999418258667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C191795146","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3878446","display_name":"Norm (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.25200000405311584}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1609/aaai.v40i40.40654","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v40i40.40654","pdf_url":"https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/AAAI/article/download/40654/44615","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210191458","display_name":"Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2159-5399","issn":["2159-5399","2374-3468"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320058","host_organization_name":"Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320058"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence"],"type":"conference"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1609/aaai.v40i40.40654","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v40i40.40654","pdf_url":"https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/AAAI/article/download/40654/44615","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210191458","display_name":"Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2159-5399","issn":["2159-5399","2374-3468"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320058","host_organization_name":"Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320058"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence"],"type":"conference"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/15","score":0.5250768065452576,"display_name":"Life in Land"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1121271761","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Program","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1231421488","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"under","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2087396116","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"China","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2376276132","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"China","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335787","funder_display_name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3317480652","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Science","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G391238517","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":", and","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5939423041","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Technology","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5994120800","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Natural","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7726157001","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Grant No.","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7898550485","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62306216","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8951484681","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Grant","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335787","funder_display_name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335787","display_name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7139086539.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7139086539.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Large":[0],"Language":[1],"Models":[2],"(LLMs)":[3],"are":[4],"widely":[5],"adopted,":[6],"but":[7],"their":[8],"high":[9],"training":[10,30,69],"cost":[11],"leads":[12],"many":[13],"developers":[14],"to":[15,23,47,68,89,116,140],"fine-tune":[16],"existing":[17],"open-source":[18,24],"models.":[19],"While":[20],"most":[21],"adhere":[22],"licenses,":[25],"some":[26],"falsely":[27],"claim":[28],"original":[29],"despite":[31],"clear":[32],"derivation":[33],"from":[34],"public":[35],"models,":[36],"raising":[37],"pressing":[38],"concerns":[39],"about":[40],"intellectual":[41,141],"property":[42,142],"protection":[43,143],"and":[44,80,107,120,144],"the":[45],"need":[46],"verify":[48],"model":[49,74,135],"provenance.":[50],"In":[51],"this":[52],"paper,":[53],"we":[54],"propose":[55],"GhostSpec,":[56],"a":[57,131,146],"lightweight":[58],"yet":[59],"effective":[60],"method":[61,138],"for":[62,134],"verifying":[63],"LLM":[64,149],"lineage":[65,125],"without":[66],"access":[67],"data":[70],"or":[71,99],"modification":[72],"of":[73,92],"behavior.":[75],"Our":[76],"approach":[77],"constructs":[78],"compact":[79],"robust":[81,115],"fingerprints":[82],"by":[83],"applying":[84],"singular":[85],"value":[86],"decomposition":[87],"(SVD)":[88],"invariant":[90],"products":[91],"internal":[93],"attention":[94],"weight":[95],"matrices.":[96],"Unlike":[97],"watermarking":[98],"output-based":[100],"methods,":[101],"GhostSpec":[102],"is":[103,114],"fully":[104],"data-free,":[105],"non-invasive,":[106],"computationally":[108],"efficient.":[109],"Extensive":[110],"experiments":[111],"show":[112],"it":[113],"fine-tuning,":[117],"pruning,":[118],"expansion,":[119],"adversarial":[121],"transformations,":[122],"reliably":[123],"tracing":[124],"with":[126],"minimal":[127],"overhead.":[128],"By":[129],"offering":[130],"practical":[132],"solution":[133],"verification,":[136],"our":[137],"contributes":[139],"fosters":[145],"transparent,":[147],"trustworthy":[148],"ecosystem.":[150]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-04-03T22:45:19.894376","created_date":"2026-03-20T00:00:00"}