{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7127117072","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4","title":"Rator: detecting fine-grained semantic code clones using tree encoding based on node degrees of freedom","display_name":"Rator: detecting fine-grained semantic code clones using tree encoding based on node degrees of freedom","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-03","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7127117072","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S3035238565","display_name":"Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2523-3246","issn":["2523-3246"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124858460","display_name":"Yu Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I169689159","display_name":"PLA Information Engineering University","ror":"https://ror.org/00mm1qk40","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I169689159"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yu Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I169689159"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124760702","display_name":"Yutao Hu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47720641","display_name":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00p991c53","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yutao Hu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47720641"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124790736","display_name":"Bing Sun","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210126926","display_name":"Jiangyin Traffic Planning Survey & Design Institute (China)","ror":"https://ror.org/02ptkm873","country_code":"CN","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210126926"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Bing Sun","raw_affiliation_strings":["China Satellite Maritime Tracking and Control Department, Jiangyin, Jiangsu, 214430, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"China Satellite Maritime Tracking and Control Department, Jiangyin, Jiangsu, 214430, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210126926"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5024679677","display_name":"Rui Lou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8709-6989"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I169689159","display_name":"PLA Information Engineering University","ror":"https://ror.org/00mm1qk40","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I169689159"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rui Lou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I169689159"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124791398","display_name":"Huanwei Wang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I169689159","display_name":"PLA Information Engineering University","ror":"https://ror.org/00mm1qk40","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I169689159"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Huanwei Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I169689159"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124858549","display_name":"Weiyu Dong","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I169689159","display_name":"PLA Information Engineering University","ror":"https://ror.org/00mm1qk40","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I169689159"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Weiyu Dong","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I169689159"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5124858460"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I169689159"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.21126116,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"9","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.8844000101089478,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.8844000101089478,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11492","display_name":"Academic integrity and plagiarism","score":0.03720000013709068,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.028999999165534973,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/code","display_name":"Code (set theory)","score":0.6126000285148621},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/clone","display_name":"clone (Java method)","score":0.5613999962806702},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/abstract-syntax-tree","display_name":"Abstract syntax tree","score":0.48750001192092896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encode","display_name":"ENCODE","score":0.474700003862381},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/source-code","display_name":"Source code","score":0.45579999685287476},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encoding","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","score":0.4383000135421753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/semantics","display_name":"Semantics (computer science)","score":0.4334999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tree","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","score":0.42910000681877136}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8008000254631042},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776760102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5139990","display_name":"Code (set theory)","level":3,"score":0.6126000285148621},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81089528","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5134986","display_name":"clone (Java method)","level":3,"score":0.5613999962806702},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58646249","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q127380","display_name":"Abstract syntax tree","level":3,"score":0.48750001192092896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66746571","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1134833","display_name":"ENCODE","level":3,"score":0.474700003862381},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43126263","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q128751","display_name":"Source code","level":2,"score":0.45579999685287476},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.45159998536109924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125411270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18653","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","level":2,"score":0.4383000135421753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184337299","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1437428","display_name":"Semantics (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.4334999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113174947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2859736","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","level":2,"score":0.42910000681877136},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.4198000133037567},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62611344","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1062658","display_name":"Node (physics)","level":2,"score":0.4133000075817108},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C60048249","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37437","display_name":"Syntax","level":2,"score":0.4027999937534332},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.3783000111579895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C101317890","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q940053","display_name":"Software maintenance","level":4,"score":0.35010001063346863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.3449999988079071},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.3255999982357025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3190999925136566},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70992990","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1681587","display_name":"Systematic code","level":4,"score":0.31360000371932983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163797641","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2067937","display_name":"Tree structure","level":3,"score":0.31040000915527344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C114408938","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q333373","display_name":"Abstract syntax","level":3,"score":0.3077999949455261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C83665646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42139305","display_name":"Feature vector","level":2,"score":0.28459998965263367},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C133162039","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1061077","display_name":"Code generation","level":3,"score":0.26030001044273376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78669399","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q677051","display_name":"B-tree","level":3,"score":0.2526000142097473},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.25200000405311584}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S3035238565","display_name":"Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2523-3246","issn":["2523-3246"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:4c42497d6cf841fb993272310924d0d7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/4c42497d6cf841fb993272310924d0d7","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity, Vol 9, Iss 1, Pp 1-19 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00456-4.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S3035238565","display_name":"Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2523-3246","issn":["2523-3246"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":0.8128589987754822,"display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7127117072.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7127117072.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":55,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1490878083","https://openalex.org/W1678356000","https://openalex.org/W1777576722","https://openalex.org/W1988790447","https://openalex.org/W2008085811","https://openalex.org/W2058564856","https://openalex.org/W2065053490","https://openalex.org/W2066455950","https://openalex.org/W2073640547","https://openalex.org/W2119887272","https://openalex.org/W2120326119","https://openalex.org/W2122111042","https://openalex.org/W2128698639","https://openalex.org/W2128782367","https://openalex.org/W2128888088","https://openalex.org/W2138756793","https://openalex.org/W2149706766","https://openalex.org/W2165739648","https://openalex.org/W2166511312","https://openalex.org/W2282866165","https://openalex.org/W2511803001","https://openalex.org/W2554076815","https://openalex.org/W2620436109","https://openalex.org/W2634106992","https://openalex.org/W2726916722","https://openalex.org/W2727832342","https://openalex.org/W2741705590","https://openalex.org/W2767717989","https://openalex.org/W2768306496","https://openalex.org/W2789627069","https://openalex.org/W2794304550","https://openalex.org/W2794744252","https://openalex.org/W2899171197","https://openalex.org/W2912934387","https://openalex.org/W2945475639","https://openalex.org/W2955426500","https://openalex.org/W3014339000","https://openalex.org/W3125205154","https://openalex.org/W3125675786","https://openalex.org/W3126906649","https://openalex.org/W3128554366","https://openalex.org/W3177116043","https://openalex.org/W3189457934","https://openalex.org/W3198988786","https://openalex.org/W3213191109","https://openalex.org/W4214658173","https://openalex.org/W4240736797","https://openalex.org/W4301168982","https://openalex.org/W4313563607","https://openalex.org/W4313563766","https://openalex.org/W4376851124","https://openalex.org/W4384155466","https://openalex.org/W4390533936","https://openalex.org/W4394745155","https://openalex.org/W4394745980"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Code":[1,254,300],"clone":[2,60,78,89,112,204,219,230,241,274,284],"detection":[3,296],"has":[4],"garnered":[5],"significant":[6],"attention":[7],"across":[8],"various":[9],"fields,":[10],"including":[11],"code":[12,26,41,50,59,88,97,111,203,220,229,240],"refactoring,":[13],"plagiarism":[14],"detection,":[15,61,90,278],"and":[16,31,43,117,176,206,248,252],"software":[17],"maintenance.":[18],"Numerous":[19],"methods":[20,54,82],"have":[21],"been":[22],"proposed":[23],"for":[24,259],"detecting":[25,123],"clones;":[27],"however,":[28],"while":[29,121,149],"text-based":[30],"token-based":[32],"approaches":[33],"are":[34,44,63,196],"scalable,":[35],"they":[36,62,195],"often":[37],"fail":[38],"to":[39,46,74,76,84,94,198,214,305],"consider":[40],"semantics":[42],"unable":[45],"effectively":[47,122],"handle":[48],"semantic":[49,58,87,100,124,273],"clones.":[51,101,125],"Although":[52],"tree-based":[53,110,272],"perform":[55],"well":[56],"in":[57],"limited":[64],"by":[65,180,208],"the":[66,92,151,155,164,167,182,210,215,282,292,298],"complex":[67,142],"structure":[68],"of":[69,137,154,166,174,246,294],"trees,":[70],"making":[71],"it":[72],"challenging":[73],"apply":[75],"large-scale":[77],"detection.":[79,231],"Moreover,":[80],"these":[81,185],"struggle":[83],"achieve":[85],"fine-grained":[86,118,228,277,295],"lacking":[91],"ability":[93],"pinpoint":[95],"specific":[96,218],"blocks":[98,221],"within":[99],"In":[102,157],"this":[103,158],"paper,":[104],"we":[105,127,160],"propose":[106],"Rator":[107,236,261,279],",":[108,269],"a":[109,129,200,287,308],"detector":[113],"that":[114,235],"combines":[115],"scalability":[116],"analysis":[119],"capabilities":[120],"Specifically,":[126],"design":[128],"tree":[130,143,170],"encoding":[131],"method":[132],"based":[133],"on":[134,250,297],"node":[135],"degrees":[136],"freedom,":[138],"which":[139],"can":[140,161,222],"transform":[141],"structures":[144],"into":[145,171],"simple":[146],"vector":[147],"representations":[148],"preserving":[150],"structural":[152],"details":[153],"tree.":[156],"way,":[159],"encode":[162],"all":[163],"subtrees":[165],"abstract":[168],"syntax":[169],"separate":[172],"sets":[173],"vectors":[175],"derive":[177],"similar":[178,189],"features":[179,190],"calculating":[181],"similarity":[183],"between":[184],"vectors.":[186],"The":[187],"derived":[188],"serve":[191],"dual":[192],"purposes:":[193],"firstly,":[194],"employed":[197],"train":[199],"machine":[201],"learning-based":[202],"detector,":[205],"then,":[207],"analyzing":[209],"subtree":[211],"types":[212],"corresponding":[213],"feature":[216],"values,":[217],"be":[223],"precisely":[224],"located,":[225],"thus":[226],"achieving":[227],"Experimental":[232],"results":[233],"show":[234],"outperforms":[237],"nine":[238],"state-of-the-art":[239,271],"detectors":[242],"with":[243,286,307],"F1":[244],"scores":[245],"0.99":[247],"0.91":[249],"BigCloneBench":[251],"Google":[253,299],"Jam":[255,301],"datasets,":[256],"respectively.":[257],"As":[258],"scalability,":[260],"is":[262,303],"about":[263],"93":[264],"times":[265],"faster":[266],"than":[267],"ASTNN":[268],"another":[270],"detector.":[275],"Regarding":[276],"correctly":[280],"identifies":[281],"concrete":[283],"block":[285],"Top-3":[288],"ranked":[289,310],"list.":[290,311],"Furthermore,":[291],"accuracy":[293],"dataset":[302],"up":[304],"100%":[306],"Top-2":[309]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-03-27T05:58:40.876381","created_date":"2026-02-03T00:00:00"}