{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7110409888","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0","title":"Beyond prompting: the role of phrasing tasks in vulnerability prediction for Java","display_name":"Beyond prompting: the role of phrasing tasks in vulnerability prediction for Java","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-12-08","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7110409888","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S3035238565","display_name":"Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2523-3246","issn":["2523-3246"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Torge Hinrichs","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7489-3540"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I159176309","display_name":"Universit\u00e4t Hamburg","ror":"https://ror.org/00g30e956","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I159176309"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I884043246","display_name":"Hamburg University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04bs1pb34","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I884043246"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Torge Hinrichs","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Software Security (E-22), Hamburg University of Technology, Blohmstra\u00dfe 15, 21079, Hamburg, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7489-3540","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Software Security (E-22), Hamburg University of Technology, Blohmstra\u00dfe 15, 21079, Hamburg, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I159176309","https://openalex.org/I884043246"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Emanuele Iannone","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I159176309","display_name":"Universit\u00e4t Hamburg","ror":"https://ror.org/00g30e956","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I159176309"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I884043246","display_name":"Hamburg University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04bs1pb34","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I884043246"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Emanuele Iannone","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Software Security (E-22), Hamburg University of Technology, Blohmstra\u00dfe 15, 21079, Hamburg, Germany"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Software Security (E-22), Hamburg University of Technology, Blohmstra\u00dfe 15, 21079, Hamburg, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I159176309","https://openalex.org/I884043246"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Riccardo Scandariato","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I159176309","display_name":"Universit\u00e4t Hamburg","ror":"https://ror.org/00g30e956","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I159176309"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I884043246","display_name":"Hamburg University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/04bs1pb34","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I884043246"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Riccardo Scandariato","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Software Security (E-22), Hamburg University of Technology, Blohmstra\u00dfe 15, 21079, Hamburg, Germany"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Software Security (E-22), Hamburg University of Technology, Blohmstra\u00dfe 15, 21079, Hamburg, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I159176309","https://openalex.org/I884043246"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I159176309","https://openalex.org/I884043246"],"apc_list":{"value":1230,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1230},"apc_paid":{"value":1230,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1230},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.66028169,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"8","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.5552999973297119,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.5552999973297119,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.07419999688863754,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12262","display_name":"Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection","score":0.06719999760389328,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.7387999892234802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/code","display_name":"Code (set theory)","score":0.6284000277519226},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/vulnerability","display_name":"Vulnerability (computing)","score":0.5787000060081482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/java","display_name":"Java","score":0.5598000288009644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/function","display_name":"Function (biology)","score":0.531499981880188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/range","display_name":"Range (aeronautics)","score":0.5059000253677368},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language","display_name":"Natural language","score":0.4832000136375427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/variable","display_name":"Variable (mathematics)","score":0.45730000734329224}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7878999710083008},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.7387999892234802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776760102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5139990","display_name":"Code (set theory)","level":3,"score":0.6284000277519226},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6116999983787537},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95713431","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q631425","display_name":"Vulnerability (computing)","level":2,"score":0.5787000060081482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C548217200","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q251","display_name":"Java","level":2,"score":0.5598000288009644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14036430","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3736076","display_name":"Function (biology)","level":2,"score":0.531499981880188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5227000117301941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.5113999843597412},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204323151","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905424","display_name":"Range (aeronautics)","level":2,"score":0.5059000253677368},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.4832000136375427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C182365436","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50701","display_name":"Variable (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.45730000734329224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120936955","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2155640","display_name":"Empirical research","level":2,"score":0.38100001215934753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.3698999881744385},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43126263","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q128751","display_name":"Source code","level":2,"score":0.36480000615119934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2983448237","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1078276","display_name":"Language understanding","level":2,"score":0.3610000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779439875","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1078276","display_name":"Natural language understanding","level":3,"score":0.3513999879360199},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.3077999949455261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175154964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380077","display_name":"Task analysis","level":3,"score":0.30469998717308044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776608160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4785462","display_name":"Natural (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.29249998927116394}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S3035238565","display_name":"Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2523-3246","issn":["2523-3246"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:86834792cc0749bba1c727c4d8b05fd9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/86834792cc0749bba1c727c4d8b05fd9","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity, Vol 8, Iss 1, Pp 1-42 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00476-0.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S3035238565","display_name":"Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2523-3246","issn":["2523-3246"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8362462119","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"101120393","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334322","funder_display_name":"HORIZON EUROPE Framework Programme"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334322","display_name":"HORIZON EUROPE Framework Programme","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7110409888.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":14,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1967390364","https://openalex.org/W2053154970","https://openalex.org/W2150740657","https://openalex.org/W2741049976","https://openalex.org/W2963732644","https://openalex.org/W2963926786","https://openalex.org/W3153128515","https://openalex.org/W3185341429","https://openalex.org/W4294214983","https://openalex.org/W4389161980","https://openalex.org/W4390741236","https://openalex.org/W4398239389","https://openalex.org/W4401885808","https://openalex.org/W4403182498"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Predicting":[1],"vulnerability":[2,310,359],"in":[3,145,213,221],"a":[4,9,47,59,63,118,125,151,189,200],"code":[5,56],"element,":[6,57],"such":[7,342],"as":[8,62,271,343],"function":[10],"or":[11,16,26,286],"method,":[12],"often":[13,174,211],"leverages":[14],"machine":[15],"deep":[17],"learning":[18],"models":[19,35,273],"to":[20,94,132,168,208,229,238,300,318,349],"classify":[21],"whether":[22,117,281],"it":[23],"is":[24,70,121,284],"vulnerable":[25,122],"not.":[27,287],"Recently,":[28],"novel":[29],"solutions":[30],"exploiting":[31],"conversational":[32,110],"large":[33],"language":[34,51,61],"(LLMs)":[36],"have":[37],"emerged,":[38],"which":[39,170,236],"allow":[40],"the":[41,44,54,78,82,90,133,142,155,214,219,227,232,272,282,290,302,323,339,352,355],"formulation":[42],"of":[43,75,89,154,191,203,234,280,306,326,334,338,354],"task":[45,144,220],"through":[46],"prompt":[48,80,294],"containing":[49],"natural":[50,60],"elements":[52],"and":[53,85,114,135,139,186,296,304,346],"input":[55,79],"obtaining":[58],"response.":[64],"Although":[65],"initial":[66],"promising":[67],"results,":[68],"there":[69],"currently":[71],"no":[72,176],"broad":[73],"exploration":[74],"(i)":[76,130],"how":[77,106],"influences":[81],"prediction":[83,143],"capabilities":[84],"(ii)":[86,140],"what":[87],"characteristics":[88,353],"model":[91,340],"response":[92,297,344],"relate":[93],"correct":[95,285],"predictions.":[96],"In":[97,312],"this":[98],"paper,":[99],"we":[100,158,217,314,330],"conduct":[101],"an":[102,332],"empirical":[103],"investigation":[104],"into":[105],"accurately":[107],"two":[108,319],"popular":[109],"LLMs,":[111,321],"i.e.,":[112,225],"GPT-3.5":[113,161],"Llama-2,":[115,169],"predict":[116],"Java":[119],"method":[120],"by":[123,129],"employing":[124],"thorough":[126],"prompting":[127],"strategy":[128],"adhering":[131],"Zero-Shot":[134,136],"Chain-of-Thought":[137],"techniques":[138],"formulating":[141],"alternative":[146],"ways":[147],"via":[148],"rephrasing.":[149],"After":[150],"manual":[152],"inspection":[153],"responses":[156,356],"generated,":[157],"observed":[159],"that":[160,252],"displayed":[162],"more":[163],"variable":[164],"F1":[165,182],"scores":[166,183],"compared":[167],"was":[171],"steadier":[172],"but":[173],"gave":[175],"direct":[177],"classification.":[178],"ZS":[179],"prompts":[180],"achieved":[181],"between":[184],"0.53":[185],"0.69,":[187],"with":[188,210,268,276],"tendency":[190],"classifying":[192],"methods":[193],"positively":[194],"(i.e.,":[195],"\u2018vulnerable\u2019);":[196],"conversely,":[197],"ZS-CoT":[198],"presents":[199],"broader":[201,324],"range":[202],"scores,":[204,348],"varying":[205],"from":[206],"0.35":[207],"0.72,":[209],"inconsistencies":[212],"results.":[215],"Then,":[216],"phrased":[218],"their":[222],"\u201cinverted":[223],"form\u201d,":[224],"asking":[226],"LLM":[228,259],"check":[230],"for":[231,241,292,309,358],"absence":[233],"vulnerabilities,":[235],"led":[237],"worse":[239],"results":[240],"GPT-3.5,":[242],"while":[243],"Llama-2":[244],"occasionally":[245],"performed":[246,331],"better.":[247],"The":[248],"study":[249,317],"further":[250,350],"suggests":[251],"textual":[253,336],"metrics":[254,264],"provide":[255],"important":[256],"information":[257],"on":[258],"outputs.":[260],"Despite":[261],"this,":[262],"these":[263],"are":[265],"not":[266],"correlated":[267],"actual":[269],"outcomes,":[270],"respond":[274],"consistently":[275],"uniform":[277],"confidence,":[278],"irrespective":[279],"outcome":[283],"This":[288],"underscores":[289],"need":[291],"customized":[293],"engineering":[295],"analysis":[298,333],"strategies":[299],"improve":[301],"precision":[303],"reliability":[305],"LLM-based":[307],"systems":[308],"prediction.":[311],"addition,":[313],"applied":[315],"our":[316,327],"state-of-the-art":[320],"validating":[322],"applicability":[325],"methodology.":[328],"Finally,":[329],"various":[335],"properties":[337],"responses,":[341],"length":[345],"readability":[347],"explore":[351],"given":[357],"detection":[360],"tasks.":[361]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-23T08:03:31.855105","created_date":"2025-12-08T00:00:00"}
