{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4415533199","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","title":"Classifying encrypted traffic using quad-directional convolution on pulse sequences","display_name":"Classifying encrypted traffic using quad-directional convolution on pulse sequences","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-10-25","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4415533199","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","pdf_url":"https://cybersecurity.springeropen.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S3035238565","display_name":"Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2523-3246","issn":["2523-3246"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://cybersecurity.springeropen.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032193293","display_name":"Cuixiang Pei","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5424-9440"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I78675632","display_name":"Beijing Information Science & Technology University","ror":"https://ror.org/04xnqep60","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I78675632"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I82880672","display_name":"Beihang University","ror":"https://ror.org/00wk2mp56","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I82880672"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Chenxu Pei","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science, Beijing Information Science & Technology University, No. 55, Taihang Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102200, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Beijing Information Science & Technology University, No. 55, Taihang Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102200, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82880672","https://openalex.org/I78675632"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5036037248","display_name":"Hua Du","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4172-5406"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I78675632","display_name":"Beijing Information Science & Technology University","ror":"https://ror.org/04xnqep60","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I78675632"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I82880672","display_name":"Beihang University","ror":"https://ror.org/00wk2mp56","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I82880672"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Huiying Du","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science, Beijing Information Science & Technology University, No. 55, Taihang Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102200, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Beijing Information Science & Technology University, No. 55, Taihang Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102200, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82880672","https://openalex.org/I78675632"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103260281","display_name":"Xuan Sun","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9687-1377"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I78675632","display_name":"Beijing Information Science & Technology University","ror":"https://ror.org/04xnqep60","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I78675632"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I82880672","display_name":"Beihang University","ror":"https://ror.org/00wk2mp56","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I82880672"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xuan Sun","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science, Beijing Information Science & Technology University, No. 55, Taihang Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102200, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Beijing Information Science & Technology University, No. 55, Taihang Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102200, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82880672","https://openalex.org/I78675632"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5032193293"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I78675632","https://openalex.org/I82880672"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.15972691,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"8","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9993000030517578,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.9976000189781189,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encryption","display_name":"Encryption","score":0.6754999756813049},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolution","display_name":"Convolution (computer science)","score":0.6222000122070312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.6040999889373779},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.5910000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.4408999979496002},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/traffic-classification","display_name":"Traffic classification","score":0.42820000648498535},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature-extraction","display_name":"Feature extraction","score":0.4018999934196472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/representation","display_name":"Representation (politics)","score":0.3700000047683716}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7174999713897705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.6754999756813049},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45347329","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5166604","display_name":"Convolution (computer science)","level":3,"score":0.6222000122070312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.6040999889373779},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.5910000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.5217000246047974},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.47999998927116394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.4408999979496002},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169988225","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7832484","display_name":"Traffic classification","level":3,"score":0.42820000648498535},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.4018999934196472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776359362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2145286","display_name":"Representation (politics)","level":3,"score":0.3700000047683716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158379750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214111","display_name":"Network packet","level":2,"score":0.3605000078678131},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3601999878883362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127162648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16858953","display_name":"Channel (broadcasting)","level":2,"score":0.3571999967098236},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780586882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7520643","display_name":"Simple (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.3391000032424927},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C83665646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42139305","display_name":"Feature vector","level":2,"score":0.31360000371932983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74193536","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q574844","display_name":"Kernel (algebra)","level":2,"score":0.3037000000476837},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75294576","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165192","display_name":"Contextual image classification","level":3,"score":0.2937000095844269},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.2919999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110083411","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1744628","display_name":"Statistical classification","level":2,"score":0.2897999882698059},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C20556612","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4469374","display_name":"Volume (thermodynamics)","level":2,"score":0.2872999906539917},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148524875","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6975395","display_name":"F1 score","level":2,"score":0.27950000762939453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205203396","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q612143","display_name":"Bilinear interpolation","level":2,"score":0.2702000141143799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2164484","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5170150","display_name":"Core (optical fiber)","level":2,"score":0.2624000012874603}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","pdf_url":"https://cybersecurity.springeropen.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S3035238565","display_name":"Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2523-3246","issn":["2523-3246"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:0ba31df6dea941b0b083956c9d220b94","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/0ba31df6dea941b0b083956c9d220b94","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity, Vol 8, Iss 1, Pp 1-16 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","pdf_url":"https://cybersecurity.springeropen.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/s42400-025-00386-1","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S3035238565","display_name":"Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2523-3246","issn":["2523-3246"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335843","display_name":"Beijing Science and Technology Planning Project","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4415533199.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4415533199.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":17,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2095390601","https://openalex.org/W2148143831","https://openalex.org/W2343828539","https://openalex.org/W2743678626","https://openalex.org/W2798878556","https://openalex.org/W2911200746","https://openalex.org/W2911301616","https://openalex.org/W2912290085","https://openalex.org/W2919493784","https://openalex.org/W3168771234","https://openalex.org/W3190152617","https://openalex.org/W4200034442","https://openalex.org/W4313362374","https://openalex.org/W4317435061","https://openalex.org/W4379279904","https://openalex.org/W4390871872","https://openalex.org/W4396237347"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"With":[1],"the":[2,11,68,92,100,103,120,123,127,138,151,165,171,193],"growing":[3],"concerns":[4],"for":[5],"user":[6],"privacy":[7],"and":[8,34,46,96,109,135,157,178,195],"communication":[9],"security,":[10],"volume":[12],"of":[13,21,77,99,148,153,162,197],"encrypted":[14,22],"traffic":[15,23,180],"has":[16],"surged,":[17],"making":[18],"accurate":[19],"classification":[20,27,97,133,152,167],"crucial.":[24],"Current":[25],"mainstream":[26],"methods":[28],"primarily":[29],"rely":[30],"on":[31,43,170,176],"handcrafted":[32],"features":[33,40,54],"machine":[35],"learning":[36],"techniques.":[37],"However,":[38],"these":[39,63],"often":[41],"depend":[42],"expert":[44],"knowledge":[45],"require":[47],"substantial":[48],"human":[49],"resources.":[50],"Additionally,":[51,169],"using":[52],"simple":[53],"can":[55],"lead":[56],"to":[57,113],"inadequate":[58],"feature":[59,93],"extraction.":[60],"To":[61],"address":[62],"challenges,":[64],"we":[65],"have":[66],"developed":[67],"Pulse-Driven":[69],"Quad-Directional":[70],"Temporal":[71],"Convolutional":[72],"Network.":[73],"A":[74],"core":[75],"innovation":[76],"this":[78,142,198],"model":[79,104,124],"is":[80],"transforming":[81],"one-dimensional":[82],"packet":[83],"length":[84],"sequences":[85],"into":[86],"two-dimensional":[87],"pulse":[88],"sequences,":[89],"significantly":[90],"enhancing":[91,132],"representation":[94],"capability":[95],"accuracy":[98,134],"model.":[101],"Furthermore,":[102],"employs":[105],"forward,":[106],"backward,":[107],"middle-outward,":[108],"both-ends-inward":[110],"temporal":[111],"convolutions":[112],"effectively":[114],"extract":[115],"global":[116],"features.":[117],"Coupled":[118],"with":[119,185],"self-attention":[121],"mechanism,":[122],"deeply":[125],"explores":[126],"dependencies":[128],"among":[129],"features,":[130],"greatly":[131],"robustness.":[136],"On":[137],"public":[139],"CESNET-TLS22":[140],"dataset,":[141,174],"method":[143,199],"achieved":[144],"an":[145,158],"F1":[146,160,186],"score":[147,161],"99.24%":[149],"in":[150,164],"five":[154],"application":[155,202],"services":[156],"average":[159],"98.74%":[163],"20-application":[166],"test.":[168],"UNB":[172],"ISCX":[173],"tests":[175],"VPN":[177],"Tor":[179],"also":[181],"demonstrated":[182],"outstanding":[183],"performance,":[184],"scores":[187],"exceeding":[188],"98%.":[189],"These":[190],"results":[191],"highlight":[192],"precision":[194],"effectiveness":[196],"across":[200],"various":[201],"scenarios.":[203]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-04-09T08:11:56.329763","created_date":"2025-10-25T00:00:00"}