{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7124710262","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7","title":"A complex system approach to decode different learning patterns in programming between majors: score, engagement, and problem-solving efficiency","display_name":"A complex system approach to decode different learning patterns in programming between majors: score, engagement, and problem-solving efficiency","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-19","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7124710262","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2494786546","display_name":"Smart Learning Environments","issn_l":"2196-7091","issn":["2196-7091"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Smart Learning Environments","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5123342853","display_name":"Zhizezhang Gao","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37802460","display_name":"Northwest University","ror":"https://ror.org/00z3td547","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhizezhang Gao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5114158693","display_name":"Haochen Yan","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37802460","display_name":"Northwest University","ror":"https://ror.org/00z3td547","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Haochen Yan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103247768","display_name":"Ying Huang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5386-2670"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37802460","display_name":"Northwest University","ror":"https://ror.org/00z3td547","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ying Huang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022841511","display_name":"Xiao Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6394-5181"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37802460","display_name":"Northwest University","ror":"https://ror.org/00z3td547","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiao Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5095915608","display_name":"Mohammed Saqr","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I175532246","display_name":"University of Eastern Finland","ror":"https://ror.org/00cyydd11","country_code":"FI","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I175532246"]}],"countries":["FI"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mohammed Saqr","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I175532246"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100569176","display_name":"Xia Sun","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2621-3752"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37802460","display_name":"Northwest University","ror":"https://ror.org/00z3td547","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Xia Sun","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Jun Feng","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0706-2103"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37802460","display_name":"Northwest University","ror":"https://ror.org/00z3td547","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jun Feng","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0706-2103","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwest University, Xi\u2019an, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":7,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5100569176"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37802460"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.07560473,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10533","display_name":"Teaching and Learning Programming","score":0.879800021648407,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1706","display_name":"Computer Science Applications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10533","display_name":"Teaching and Learning Programming","score":0.879800021648407,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1706","display_name":"Computer Science Applications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10636","display_name":"Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods","score":0.006599999964237213,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.006000000052154064,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/complex-system","display_name":"Complex system","score":0.6062999963760376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bridge","display_name":"Bridge (graph theory)","score":0.590499997138977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/attractor","display_name":"Attractor","score":0.44290000200271606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/complex-dynamics","display_name":"Complex dynamics","score":0.44029998779296875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/dynamics","display_name":"Dynamics (music)","score":0.40880000591278076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-programming","display_name":"Computer programming","score":0.33009999990463257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/class","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","score":0.3287999927997589}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6338000297546387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47822265","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q854457","display_name":"Complex system","level":2,"score":0.6062999963760376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100776233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2532492","display_name":"Bridge (graph theory)","level":2,"score":0.590499997138977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4756999909877777},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C164380108","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q507187","display_name":"Attractor","level":2,"score":0.44290000200271606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126701199","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q264224","display_name":"Complex dynamics","level":2,"score":0.44029998779296875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.4108999967575073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145912823","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q113558","display_name":"Dynamics (music)","level":2,"score":0.40880000591278076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.3379000127315521},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33857546","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80006","display_name":"Computer programming","level":2,"score":0.33009999990463257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777212361","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5127848","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.3287999927997589},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.32100000977516174},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779038628","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7248497","display_name":"Programming by demonstration","level":3,"score":0.30550000071525574},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C188147891","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q147638","display_name":"Cognitive science","level":1,"score":0.30399999022483826},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37404715","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380679","display_name":"Dynamic programming","level":2,"score":0.2904999852180481},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.2808000147342682},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.28049999475479126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2986087404","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15946010","display_name":"Online learning","level":2,"score":0.2694000005722046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34165917","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188267","display_name":"Programming paradigm","level":2,"score":0.26570001244544983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112972136","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7595718","display_name":"Stability (learning theory)","level":2,"score":0.25839999318122864},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34947359","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q665189","display_name":"Complex network","level":2,"score":0.2517000138759613}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2494786546","display_name":"Smart Learning Environments","issn_l":"2196-7091","issn":["2196-7091"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Smart Learning Environments","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:b54629d1a6e341519b2b200ca9410b41","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/b54629d1a6e341519b2b200ca9410b41","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Smart Learning Environments, Vol 13, Iss 1, Pp 1-21 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40561-026-00431-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2494786546","display_name":"Smart Learning Environments","issn_l":"2196-7091","issn":["2196-7091"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Smart Learning Environments","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education","score":0.812701404094696}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322439","display_name":"Northwest University","ror":"https://ror.org/00z3td547"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7124710262.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7124710262.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":61,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1971916043","https://openalex.org/W1988180953","https://openalex.org/W1990112237","https://openalex.org/W2122166962","https://openalex.org/W2123536472","https://openalex.org/W2148781867","https://openalex.org/W2283235026","https://openalex.org/W2436336594","https://openalex.org/W2604713641","https://openalex.org/W2606339429","https://openalex.org/W2788318960","https://openalex.org/W2910030526","https://openalex.org/W2966086133","https://openalex.org/W3000232414","https://openalex.org/W3007090669","https://openalex.org/W3007804617","https://openalex.org/W3034267728","https://openalex.org/W3034674224","https://openalex.org/W3129481218","https://openalex.org/W3129664168","https://openalex.org/W3195797676","https://openalex.org/W3196079782","https://openalex.org/W3200565178","https://openalex.org/W3200831540","https://openalex.org/W3215802972","https://openalex.org/W4205465763","https://openalex.org/W4205809386","https://openalex.org/W4280506651","https://openalex.org/W4285260634","https://openalex.org/W4289350584","https://openalex.org/W4315644206","https://openalex.org/W4320806983","https://openalex.org/W4322741323","https://openalex.org/W4323037791","https://openalex.org/W4323662854","https://openalex.org/W4361292794","https://openalex.org/W4368248430","https://openalex.org/W4380051111","https://openalex.org/W4383198319","https://openalex.org/W4385703916","https://openalex.org/W4386584939","https://openalex.org/W4387674710","https://openalex.org/W4387773937","https://openalex.org/W4388631495","https://openalex.org/W4390292222","https://openalex.org/W4390316054","https://openalex.org/W4392564668","https://openalex.org/W4392810340","https://openalex.org/W4399940104","https://openalex.org/W4401105920","https://openalex.org/W4401702648","https://openalex.org/W4402529089","https://openalex.org/W4405121400","https://openalex.org/W4405124941","https://openalex.org/W4405157165","https://openalex.org/W4407681687","https://openalex.org/W4408408008","https://openalex.org/W4408742959","https://openalex.org/W4410294403","https://openalex.org/W4414127142","https://openalex.org/W4415543148"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Programming":[1],"is":[2],"gradually":[3],"essential":[4],"for":[5,185,245],"non-majors":[6],"but":[7],"poses":[8],"unique":[9],"challenges":[10],"compared":[11],"with":[12,62,94,111,151,160],"computer":[13],"science":[14],"(CS)":[15],"peers.":[16],"Prior":[17],"cross-sectional":[18],"and":[19,38,65,98,129,166,198,211,217,243,247],"sequence-frequency":[20],"studies":[21],"overlook":[22],"learning\u2019s":[23],"multidimensional,":[24],"emergent":[25],"nature.":[26],"Guided":[27],"by":[28],"Competency":[29],"Learning":[30],"Framework,":[31],"we":[32,83,239],"collected":[33],"three-channel":[34],"data:":[35],"score,":[36],"engagement,":[37],"problem-solving":[39],"efficiency":[40],"(code":[41],"metrics)":[42],"to":[43,226],"jointly":[44],"map":[45],"student":[46,143],"competency,":[47],"including":[48],"22,950":[49],"submissions":[50],"from":[51],"a":[52,116],"mixed":[53],"program":[54],"of":[55,115,142,163,172,230],"75":[56],"novices":[57],"(40":[58],"CS,":[59],"35":[60],"Math)":[61],"declared":[63,137],"majors":[64],"similar":[66],"initial":[67,173],"levels":[68],"in":[69,121,208],"an":[70],"introductory":[71],"programming":[72,187,219],"course.":[73],"Via":[74],"complex":[75,117,190],"system":[76,191],"approach":[77,192],"based":[78],"on":[79,236],"multi-channel":[80],"longitudinal":[81],"analysis,":[82],"identified":[84],"three":[85],"stable":[86,106],"learning":[87,102,153,164,209,220],"patterns":[88,210],"(disengaged-underperformance,":[89],"fluctuating,":[90],"persistently":[91,130],"engaged),":[92],"along":[93],"their":[95],"state-transition":[96],"networks":[97],"nonlinear":[99],"interactions.":[100],"Each":[101],"pattern":[103],"remains":[104],"relatively":[105],"throughout":[107],"the":[108,112,122,127,170],"semester,":[109],"consistent":[110],"general":[113],"dynamics":[114],"system.":[118],"Hardworking":[119],"students":[120,146,246],"fluctuating":[123],"are":[124,223],"similar,":[125],"whereas":[126,155],"disengaged-underperformance":[128],"engaged":[131],"differ":[132],"across":[133],"majors,":[134],"indicating":[135],"that":[136],"major":[138],"influences":[139],"attractor":[140],"states":[141],"groups.":[144],"CS":[145],"emerged":[147],"as":[148],"early":[149],"strivers":[150],"stronger":[152],"consistency,":[154],"Math":[156],"prefer":[157],"late":[158],"engagers":[159],"considerable":[161],"proportion":[162],"avoidance":[165],"cold-start.":[167],"This":[168],"highlights":[169],"importance":[171],"states:":[174],"those":[175],"starting":[176],"behind":[177],"faced":[178],"greater":[179],"inertia.":[180],"We":[181],"contribute":[182],"detail":[183],"methodology":[184],"process-oriented":[186,241],"research":[188],"via":[189],"which":[193,222],"reveals":[194],"who":[195],"learns,":[196],"how,":[197],"when.":[199],"Furthermore,":[200],"our":[201],"findings":[202],"uncover":[203],"how":[204],"theoretical":[205],"frameworks":[206],"manifest":[207],"bridge":[212],"gap":[213],"between":[214],"abstract":[215],"theory":[216],"observable":[218],"process,":[221],"readily":[224],"extendable":[225],"other":[227],"educational":[228],"contexts":[229],"higher":[231],"education":[232],"beyond":[233],"CS.":[234],"Based":[235],"these":[237],"insights,":[238],"offer":[240],"guidance":[242],"scaffolding":[244],"teachers.":[248]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2026-01-20T00:00:00"}