{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7159870515","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/8117975","title":"Breaking the Imitation Game: Can LLMs Fool Humans and Machines Alike?","display_name":"Breaking the Imitation Game: Can LLMs Fool Humans and Machines Alike?","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7159870515","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/8117975"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1155/int/8117975","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/8117975","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S57950554","display_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","issn_l":"0884-8173","issn":["0884-8173","1098-111X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320595","host_organization_name":"Wiley","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320595"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Wiley"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/8117975","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5135059577","display_name":"Ubaid Ullah","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0710-2531"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I127077003","display_name":"IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca","ror":"https://ror.org/035gh3a49","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I127077003"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Ubaid Ullah","raw_affiliation_strings":["IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca ,  Lucca , Tuscany,  Italy , imtlucca.it"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0710-2531","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca ,  Lucca , Tuscany,  Italy , imtlucca.it","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I127077003"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5045371064","display_name":"Sonia Laudanna","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-1256-7076"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16337185","display_name":"University of Sannio","ror":"https://ror.org/04vc81p87","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16337185"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sonia Laudanna","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Sannio ,  Benevento , Campania,  Italy , unisannio.it"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-1256-7076","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Sannio ,  Benevento , Campania,  Italy , unisannio.it","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16337185"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124061709","display_name":"Andrea Di Sorbo","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16337185","display_name":"University of Sannio","ror":"https://ror.org/04vc81p87","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16337185"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Andrea Di Sorbo","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Sannio ,  Benevento , Campania,  Italy , unisannio.it"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Sannio ,  Benevento , Campania,  Italy , unisannio.it","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16337185"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5105027616","display_name":"Corrado Aaron Visaggio","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I106296451","display_name":"University of Foggia","ror":"https://ror.org/01xtv3204","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I106296451"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Corrado Aaron Visaggio","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Foggia ,  Foggia , Apulia,  Italy , unifg.it"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Foggia ,  Foggia , Apulia,  Italy , unifg.it","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I106296451"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5135059577"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I127077003"],"apc_list":{"value":2700,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2700},"apc_paid":{"value":2700,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2700},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.42209345,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"2026","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12380","display_name":"Authorship Attribution and Profiling","score":0.7560999989509583,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12380","display_name":"Authorship Attribution and Profiling","score":0.7560999989509583,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12262","display_name":"Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection","score":0.11659999936819077,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.03629999980330467,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/stylometry","display_name":"Stylometry","score":0.7402999997138977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adversarial-system","display_name":"Adversarial system","score":0.7016000151634216},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/disinformation","display_name":"Disinformation","score":0.6162999868392944},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/imitation","display_name":"Imitation","score":0.5234000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/style","display_name":"Style (visual arts)","score":0.4912000000476837},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deception","display_name":"Deception","score":0.47999998927116394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/social-media","display_name":"Social media","score":0.44339999556541443},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-generation","display_name":"Natural language generation","score":0.3521000146865845}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11192451","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2032038","display_name":"Stylometry","level":2,"score":0.7402999997138977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37736160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1801315","display_name":"Adversarial system","level":2,"score":0.7016000151634216},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776552730","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189656","display_name":"Disinformation","level":3,"score":0.6162999868392944},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5738999843597412},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5568000078201294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126388530","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1131737","display_name":"Imitation","level":2,"score":0.5234000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776445246","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1792644","display_name":"Style (visual arts)","level":2,"score":0.4912000000476837},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779267917","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170028","display_name":"Deception","level":2,"score":0.47999998927116394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C518677369","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q202833","display_name":"Social media","level":2,"score":0.44339999556541443},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.43939998745918274},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.37049999833106995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.3601999878883362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776187449","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1513879","display_name":"Natural language generation","level":3,"score":0.3521000146865845},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.34709998965263367},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13622073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2243831","display_name":"Writing style","level":2,"score":0.3465999960899353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.34279999136924744},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3142000138759613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79416737","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2305519","display_name":"Social learning","level":2,"score":0.305400013923645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.29510000348091125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.28850001096725464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776608160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4785462","display_name":"Natural (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.28029999136924744},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781162219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26250693","display_name":"Replicate","level":2,"score":0.27889999747276306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.2745000123977661},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779628075","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1253258","display_name":"Downgrade","level":2,"score":0.2702000141143799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C188147891","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q147638","display_name":"Cognitive science","level":1,"score":0.25999999046325684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C176856949","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2001676","display_name":"Offensive","level":2,"score":0.2515999972820282},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94124525","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q912550","display_name":"Categorization","level":2,"score":0.250900000333786}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1155/int/8117975","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/8117975","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S57950554","display_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","issn_l":"0884-8173","issn":["0884-8173","1098-111X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320595","host_organization_name":"Wiley","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320595"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Wiley"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1155/int/8117975","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/8117975","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S57950554","display_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","issn_l":"0884-8173","issn":["0884-8173","1098-111X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320595","host_organization_name":"Wiley","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320595"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Wiley"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10","display_name":"Reduced inequalities","score":0.7250200510025024}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320331528","display_name":"Ministero dell'Universit\u00e0 e della Ricerca","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":28,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1577581905","https://openalex.org/W2167271913","https://openalex.org/W2768755876","https://openalex.org/W2769056027","https://openalex.org/W2909752766","https://openalex.org/W3161669023","https://openalex.org/W4289253852","https://openalex.org/W4313155193","https://openalex.org/W4322704782","https://openalex.org/W4361293442","https://openalex.org/W4382361534","https://openalex.org/W4385372118","https://openalex.org/W4389869683","https://openalex.org/W4392654282","https://openalex.org/W4400579287","https://openalex.org/W4400647468","https://openalex.org/W4401863513","https://openalex.org/W4403651433","https://openalex.org/W4404515027","https://openalex.org/W4404797809","https://openalex.org/W4404925513","https://openalex.org/W4405181600","https://openalex.org/W4406939734","https://openalex.org/W4407163436","https://openalex.org/W4407248139","https://openalex.org/W4409362845","https://openalex.org/W4415797213","https://openalex.org/W7126413578"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"emergence":[1],"of":[2,29,50,104,114,122,143,183,206,217,263],"large":[3],"language":[4,11],"models":[5,150],"(LLMs)":[6],"has":[7],"significantly":[8],"advanced":[9],"natural":[10],"processing":[12],"(NLP);":[13],"however,":[14],"their":[15],"capacity":[16],"to":[17,55,60,86,99,139,151,167,200,265],"generate":[18],"human\u2010like":[19],"content":[20],"introduces":[21],"serious":[22],"security":[23],"concerns.":[24],"In":[25,93,129,187,208,228],"particular,":[26,94],"the":[27,63,101,119,141,189,198,203,210,222,226,237],"misuse":[28],"LLMs":[30,72,82,124,178],"for":[31,45,197],"disinformation":[32],"and":[33,48,73,78,117,146,154],"impersonation":[34],"on":[35,108,158],"social":[36],"media":[37],"platforms":[38],"such":[39],"as":[40],"X":[41],"creates":[42],"new":[43],"opportunities":[44],"large\u2010scale":[46],"manipulation":[47],"deception":[49],"users.":[51],"This":[52],"study":[53],"aims":[54],"conduct":[56,132],"a":[57,88,133,144,214],"comprehensive":[58],"investigation":[59],"(i)":[61],"understand":[62],"distinct":[64],"stylistic":[65],"features":[66,111,182],"effectively":[67,180],"mimicked":[68],"by":[69,225],"10":[70],"different":[71,123,204],"(ii)":[74],"distinguish":[75,201],"between":[76,202],"LLM\u2010driven":[77,155],"human":[79,90,105,137,184],"authors":[80,106],"when":[81,175,236],"are":[83,165],"explicitly":[84,176],"instructed":[85],"mimic":[87,100],"specific":[89],"writing":[91,102,115,185],"style.":[92,186],"we":[95,131],"design":[96],"adversarial":[97,163],"prompts":[98,164],"style":[103,169],"based":[107],"key":[109],"stylometric":[110],"(quantitative":[112],"analysis":[113],"style)":[116],"assess":[118],"mimicking":[120],"effectiveness":[121],"through":[125],"extensive":[126],"statistical":[127],"testing.":[128],"addition,":[130,188],"survey":[134,190],"that":[135,193],"gauges":[136],"ability":[138],"recognize":[140],"author":[142],"text":[145,223,270],"train":[147],"machine":[148],"learning":[149],"identify":[152],"human\u2010":[153],"authors,":[156],"focusing":[157],"scenarios":[159],"where":[160],"specifically":[161],"crafted":[162],"employed":[166],"facilitate":[168],"impersonation.":[170],"Our":[171],"findings":[172],"demonstrate":[173],"that,":[174],"instructed,":[177],"can":[179],"replicate":[181],"results":[191],"indicate":[192],"it":[194],"is":[195,233],"challenging":[196],"participants":[199,211],"types":[205],"authors.":[207],"fact,":[209],"only":[212,235],"demonstrated":[213],"classification":[215,261],"accuracy":[216,262],"15%":[218],"in":[219,267],"correctly":[220],"identifying":[221],"generated":[224,242],"LLM.":[227],"contrast,":[229],"high":[230],"detection":[231],"performance":[232],"achieved":[234],"training":[238,252],"data":[239],"incorporate":[240],"adversarially":[241],"LLM":[243],"samples":[244],"produced":[245],"using":[246],"impersonation\u2010oriented":[247],"prompts.":[248],"Under":[249],"this":[250],"threat\u2010model\u2013aligned":[251],"regime,":[253],"stylometric\u2010based":[254],"classifiers":[255],"exhibit":[256],"strong":[257],"discriminative":[258],"capability,":[259],"attaining":[260],"up":[264],"99%":[266],"distinguishing":[268],"human\u2010authored":[269],"from":[271],"LLM\u2010generated":[272],"authorship.":[273]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-08-21T09:56:20.448147","created_date":"2026-05-03T00:00:00"}
