{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7165657042","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/2309553","title":"SpamLLM: Leveraging Large Language Models for Robust Spam Email Classification","display_name":"SpamLLM: Leveraging Large Language Models for Robust Spam Email Classification","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7165657042","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/2309553"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1155/int/2309553","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/2309553","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S57950554","display_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","issn_l":"0884-8173","issn":["0884-8173","1098-111X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320595","host_organization_name":"Wiley","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320595"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Wiley"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/2309553","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060147736","display_name":"Zhiyong He","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2379-9807"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210101451","display_name":"Nanjing University of Industry Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00qf07q44","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210101451"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Zhiyong He","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Electronic and Information Engineering/School of Integrated Circuits ,  Nanjing University of Industry Technology ,  Nanjing ,  210003 ,  China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2379-9807","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering/School of Integrated Circuits ,  Nanjing University of Industry Technology ,  Nanjing ,  210003 ,  China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210101451"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5113414366","display_name":"C. Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-2420-8278"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16518940","display_name":"Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education","ror":"https://ror.org/01dmaez27","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16518940"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chang Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Hospitality and Business Management ,  Technological and Higher Education Institute of Hong Kong ,  Hong Kong ,  999077 ,  China , thei.edu.hk"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-2420-8278","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Hospitality and Business Management ,  Technological and Higher Education Institute of Hong Kong ,  Hong Kong ,  999077 ,  China , thei.edu.hk","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16518940"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5139174133","display_name":"Boyang Hu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9803-6672"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I57206974","display_name":"New York University","ror":"https://ror.org/0190ak572","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I57206974"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Boyang Hu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Steinhardt School ,  New York University ,  New York City ,  10012 , New York,  USA , nyu.edu"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9803-6672","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Steinhardt School ,  New York University ,  New York City ,  10012 , New York,  USA , nyu.edu","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I57206974"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5139174012","display_name":"Duo Jia","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8807-1385"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210102494","display_name":"Inner Mongolia Electric Power Survey & Design Institute (China)","ror":"https://ror.org/01cg3n190","country_code":"CN","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210102494"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Duo Jia","raw_affiliation_strings":["Inner Mongolia Institute of Metrology Testing and Research ,  Hohhot ,  010050 ,  China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8807-1385","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Inner Mongolia Institute of Metrology Testing and Research ,  Hohhot ,  010050 ,  China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210102494"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5060147736"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210101451"],"apc_list":{"value":2700,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2700},"apc_paid":{"value":2700,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2700},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.70344835,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"2026","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11644","display_name":"Spam and Phishing Detection","score":0.9824000000953674,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11644","display_name":"Spam and Phishing Detection","score":0.9824000000953674,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11652","display_name":"Imbalanced Data Classification Techniques","score":0.0017999999690800905,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12488","display_name":"Mental Health via Writing","score":0.0015999999595806003,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adaptability","display_name":"Adaptability","score":0.579200029373169},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/metadata","display_name":"Metadata","score":0.5242999792098999},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.4767000079154968},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/baseline","display_name":"Baseline (sea)","score":0.4131999909877777},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sophistication","display_name":"Sophistication","score":0.39800000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/support-vector-machine","display_name":"Support vector machine","score":0.38179999589920044}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8610000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5964000225067139},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177606310","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5674297","display_name":"Adaptability","level":2,"score":0.579200029373169},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5396999716758728},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C93518851","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180160","display_name":"Metadata","level":2,"score":0.5242999792098999},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.4767000079154968},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12725497","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q810247","display_name":"Baseline (sea)","level":2,"score":0.4131999909877777},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C23123220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816826","display_name":"Information retrieval","level":1,"score":0.41290000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C168725872","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q991663","display_name":"Sophistication","level":2,"score":0.39800000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.38179999589920044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127735637","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2306702","display_name":"Spambot","level":4,"score":0.3589000105857849},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.3560999929904938},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.31529998779296875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184337299","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1437428","display_name":"Semantics (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.29420000314712524},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.28790000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C171686336","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3532085","display_name":"Topic model","level":2,"score":0.2872999906539917},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.2858999967575073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13672336","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3460803","display_name":"Bag-of-words model","level":2,"score":0.2718999981880188}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1155/int/2309553","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/2309553","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S57950554","display_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","issn_l":"0884-8173","issn":["0884-8173","1098-111X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320595","host_organization_name":"Wiley","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320595"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Wiley"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1155/int/2309553","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1155/int/2309553","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S57950554","display_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","issn_l":"0884-8173","issn":["0884-8173","1098-111X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320595","host_organization_name":"Wiley","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320595"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Wiley"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Intelligent Systems","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":50,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1614866013","https://openalex.org/W2000369940","https://openalex.org/W2049023511","https://openalex.org/W2058074787","https://openalex.org/W2144211451","https://openalex.org/W2805563577","https://openalex.org/W2888021909","https://openalex.org/W2972759136","https://openalex.org/W3000358430","https://openalex.org/W3003447812","https://openalex.org/W3005197732","https://openalex.org/W3011776577","https://openalex.org/W3085571720","https://openalex.org/W3092552943","https://openalex.org/W3116066219","https://openalex.org/W3119876417","https://openalex.org/W3120822793","https://openalex.org/W3126641643","https://openalex.org/W3163881436","https://openalex.org/W3169045258","https://openalex.org/W3213407977","https://openalex.org/W4224033583","https://openalex.org/W4224119655","https://openalex.org/W4281399463","https://openalex.org/W4285407083","https://openalex.org/W4306154355","https://openalex.org/W4307900484","https://openalex.org/W4308531312","https://openalex.org/W4315750500","https://openalex.org/W4318711060","https://openalex.org/W4319309824","https://openalex.org/W4320005389","https://openalex.org/W4363678423","https://openalex.org/W4364381049","https://openalex.org/W4366377533","https://openalex.org/W4372355457","https://openalex.org/W4379381515","https://openalex.org/W4385151839","https://openalex.org/W4388333525","https://openalex.org/W4390882684","https://openalex.org/W4393323398","https://openalex.org/W4393982761","https://openalex.org/W4395482320","https://openalex.org/W4396527670","https://openalex.org/W4396949506","https://openalex.org/W4398163943","https://openalex.org/W4400364751","https://openalex.org/W4403962742","https://openalex.org/W4406771621","https://openalex.org/W4408954652"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Spam":[0],"email":[1,60,147],"detection":[2,24,40,74,121],"remains":[3],"an":[4],"ongoing":[5],"challenge":[6],"due":[7],"to":[8],"the":[9,128],"increasing":[10],"sophistication":[11],"and":[12,20,31,55,62,76,85,99,107,118,139],"evolving":[13],"tactics":[14],"employed":[15],"by":[16],"spammers.":[17],"Traditional":[18],"rule\u2013based":[19],"machine":[21],"learning":[22],"(ML)":[23],"methods":[25,98],"have":[26],"demonstrated":[27],"limitations":[28],"in":[29,103,113,146],"adaptability":[30],"generalization.":[32],"This":[33],"paper":[34],"proposes":[35],"SpamLLM,":[36],"a":[37,44],"multimodal":[38,131],"spam":[39,73,116,136],"framework":[41],"that":[42,94],"leverages":[43],"frozen":[45],"large":[46],"language":[47],"model":[48],"(LLM)":[49],"backbone":[50],"integrated":[51],"with":[52],"semantic":[53],"embeddings":[54],"structured":[56],"metadata":[57],"extracted":[58],"from":[59],"headers":[61],"body":[63],"statistics.":[64],"Rigorous":[65],"evaluations":[66],"are":[67],"conducted":[68],"across":[69,122],"four":[70],"widely":[71],"used":[72],"datasets,":[75],"SpamLLM":[77,95,111],"is":[78],"compared":[79],"against":[80],"classical":[81],"ML,":[82],"deep":[83],"learning,":[84],"pretrained":[86],"Transformer\u2010based":[87],"baseline":[88],"models.":[89],"The":[90],"experimental":[91],"results":[92],"demonstrate":[93],"outperforms":[96],"existing":[97],"achieves":[100],"state\u2010of\u2010the\u2010art":[101],"performance":[102],"accuracy,":[104],"precision,":[105],"recall,":[106],"F1":[108],"score.":[109],"Notably,":[110],"excels":[112],"handling":[114],"diverse":[115],"content":[117],"provides":[119],"robust":[120],"various":[123],"datasets.":[124],"These":[125],"findings":[126],"underscore":[127],"potential":[129],"of":[130],"fusion":[132],"approaches":[133],"for":[134,143],"advancing":[135],"classification":[137],"systems":[138],"suggest":[140],"promising":[141],"directions":[142],"future":[144],"research":[145],"security.":[148]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-08-21T09:56:20.448147","created_date":"2026-06-24T00:00:00"}