{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7127070940","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3787256.3787265","title":"NPC Control Across Algorithm Classes: Static Logic, Evolutionary, Reinforcement Learning, and Hybrid Generative Methods","display_name":"NPC Control Across Algorithm Classes: Static Logic, Evolutionary, Reinforcement Learning, and Hybrid Generative Methods","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-11-21","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7127070940","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3787256.3787265"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3787256.3787265","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3787256.3787265","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 2025 8th International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Intelligent Systems","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3787256.3787265","any_repository_has_fulltext":null},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124779041","display_name":"Krieolin Navindran Naidoo","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I24027795","display_name":"University of Johannesburg","ror":"https://ror.org/04z6c2n17","country_code":"ZA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I24027795"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210148908","display_name":"Health Science Academy (South Africa)","ror":"https://ror.org/03ya8jr27","country_code":"ZA","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210148908"]}],"countries":["ZA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Krieolin Navindran Naidoo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Academy of Computer Sciences and Software Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5893-893X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Academy of Computer Sciences and Software Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I24027795","https://openalex.org/I4210148908"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5044122642","display_name":"Duncan Coulter","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9218-4844"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I24027795","display_name":"University of Johannesburg","ror":"https://ror.org/04z6c2n17","country_code":"ZA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I24027795"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210148908","display_name":"Health Science Academy (South Africa)","ror":"https://ror.org/03ya8jr27","country_code":"ZA","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210148908"]}],"countries":["ZA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Duncan Anthony Coulter","raw_affiliation_strings":["Academy of Computer Sciences and Software Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9218-4844","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Academy of Computer Sciences and Software Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I24027795","https://openalex.org/I4210148908"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5124779041"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I24027795","https://openalex.org/I4210148908"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.83339649,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"58","last_page":"69"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11574","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Games","score":0.809499979019165,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11574","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Games","score":0.809499979019165,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10462","display_name":"Reinforcement Learning in Robotics","score":0.1509999930858612,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12290","display_name":"Human Motion and Animation","score":0.004900000058114529,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.8263000249862671},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/genetic-algorithm","display_name":"Genetic algorithm","score":0.5453000068664551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tree","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","score":0.4814999997615814},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/evolutionary-algorithm","display_name":"Evolutionary algorithm","score":0.47350001335144043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.461899995803833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reliability","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","score":0.45089998841285706},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control","display_name":"Control (management)","score":0.43720000982284546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/generative-grammar","display_name":"Generative grammar","score":0.4343999922275543}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.8263000249862671},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6708999872207642},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5741000175476074},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8880873","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187787","display_name":"Genetic algorithm","level":2,"score":0.5453000068664551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113174947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2859736","display_name":"Tree (set theory)","level":2,"score":0.4814999997615814},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159149176","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14489129","display_name":"Evolutionary algorithm","level":2,"score":0.47350001335144043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.461899995803833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.45089998841285706},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.43720000982284546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39890363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36108","display_name":"Generative grammar","level":2,"score":0.4343999922275543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.40779998898506165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203479927","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165939","display_name":"Controller (irrigation)","level":2,"score":0.3725999891757965},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780861071","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1062934","display_name":"Character (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.36550000309944153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777212361","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5127848","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.3612000048160553},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105902424","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1197129","display_name":"Evolutionary computation","level":2,"score":0.3601999878883362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.3375000059604645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126255220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141495","display_name":"Mathematical optimization","level":1,"score":0.3375000059604645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67203356","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321905","display_name":"Reinforcement","level":2,"score":0.3138999938964844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167966045","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5532625","display_name":"Generative model","level":3,"score":0.2957000136375427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41065033","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2825412","display_name":"Adversary","level":2,"score":0.28189998865127563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26263659","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1886131","display_name":"Random seed","level":3,"score":0.2766000032424927},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.25999999046325684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3018412434","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7889","display_name":"Video game","level":2,"score":0.2524000108242035}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3787256.3787265","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3787256.3787265","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 2025 8th International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Intelligent Systems","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3787256.3787265","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3787256.3787265","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 2025 8th International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Intelligent Systems","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":8,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2736458122","https://openalex.org/W2971858689","https://openalex.org/W2975442767","https://openalex.org/W3145123113","https://openalex.org/W4232981643","https://openalex.org/W4239874967","https://openalex.org/W4296339434","https://openalex.org/W4377695283"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Non-player":[0],"character":[1],"(NPC)":[2],"control":[3],"in":[4,29],"video":[5],"games":[6],"spans":[7],"distinct":[8],"classes":[9],"of":[10,41,102,133],"methods:":[11],"Static":[12],"logic,":[13],"evolutionary":[14,56,65],"search,":[15],"gradient-based":[16],"reinforcement":[17],"learning,":[18],"and":[19,77,108,123,151,153,207,241,246],"hybrids":[20],"with":[21,72,165],"generative":[22],"models.":[23],"We":[24,126,221],"present":[25],"a":[26,30,45,52,59,78,84,88,116],"cross-class":[27],"comparison":[28],"single":[31],"2D":[32],"platformer":[33],"we":[34],"created":[35],"using":[36],"the":[37,98,111,162,191,204,211,218],"Unity":[38],"game":[39,113,145],"engine":[40],"five":[42],"representative":[43],"controllers:":[44],"designer-authored":[46],"Behavior":[47,62],"Tree":[48,63],"(BT;":[49],"static":[50,229],"logic),":[51],"Genetic":[53,60],"Algorithm":[54],"(GA;":[55],"parameter":[57],"search),":[58],"Programming\u2013evolved":[61],"(EBT;":[64],"program":[66],"synthesis),":[67],"deep":[68,106,179],"Reinforcement":[69],"Learning":[70],"(RL)":[71],"Proximal":[73],"Policy":[74],"Optimization":[75],"(PPO),":[76],"Variational":[79],"Autoencoder\u2013initialized":[80],"RL":[81,180],"agent":[82],"(VAE\u2013RL;":[83],"hybrid":[85],"that":[86],"uses":[87],"VAE":[89],"to":[90],"warm-start":[91],"PPO).":[92],"To":[93],"our":[94],"knowledge,":[95],"this":[96],"is":[97,172,195],"first":[99],"side-by-side":[100],"evaluation":[101],"BT,":[103],"GA,":[104],"EBT,":[105],"RL,":[107],"VAE\u2013RL":[109],"within":[110],"same":[112],"environment":[114],"under":[115],"shared":[117],"observation/action":[118],"interface,":[119],"matched":[120],"training":[121],"budget,":[122],"unified":[124],"metrics.":[125],"evaluate":[127],"each":[128],"controller":[129],"on":[130,190,197,203,210,217,249],"three":[131],"levels":[132],"increasing":[134],"difficulty,":[135],"running":[136],"ten":[137],"episodes":[138],"per":[139],"level.":[140,220],"Primary":[141],"metrics":[142],"are":[143],"total":[144],"score":[146],"(from":[147],"collectibles,":[148],"enemy":[149],"defeats":[150],"time)":[152],"completion":[154,189],"rate.":[155],"Results":[156],"reveal":[157],"class-dependent":[158],"trade-offs:":[159],"VAE-RL":[160],"attains":[161],"highest":[163],"scores":[164],"perfect":[166],"reliability":[167],"across":[168],"all":[169],"levels;":[170],"BT":[171],"also":[173],"perfectly":[174],"reliable":[175],"but":[176,200],"slightly":[177],"lower-scoring;":[178],"reaches":[181],"competitive":[182],"means":[183],"yet":[184],"shows":[185],"variability":[186],"(about":[187],"70%":[188],"harder":[192],"levels);":[193],"EBT":[194],"strong":[196],"easier":[198],"content":[199],"fails":[201],"occasionally":[202],"hardest":[205],"level;":[206],"GA":[208],"collapses":[209],"trap-heavy":[212],"medium":[213],"level":[214],"before":[215],"recovering":[216],"hard":[219],"interpret":[222],"these":[223],"outcomes":[224],"along":[225],"key":[226],"design":[227],"axes:":[228],"versus":[230,234,238,243],"dynamic":[231],"control,":[232],"white-box":[233],"black-box":[235],"policies,":[236],"search-driven":[237],"gradient-driven":[239],"learning":[240],"hand-crafted":[242],"data-driven":[244],"design,":[245],"offer":[247],"guidance":[248],"selecting":[250],"an":[251],"algorithm":[252],"class":[253],"for":[254],"similar":[255],"games.":[256]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-03-27T05:58:40.876381","created_date":"2026-02-03T00:00:00"}