{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414320956","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3768165","title":"A Comprehensive Survey of Small Language Models in the Era of Large Language Models: Techniques, Enhancements, Applications, Collaboration with LLMs, and Trustworthiness","display_name":"A Comprehensive Survey of Small Language Models in the Era of Large Language Models: Techniques, Enhancements, Applications, Collaboration with LLMs, and Trustworthiness","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-09-18","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414320956","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3768165"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3768165","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3768165","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2492086750","display_name":"ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology","issn_l":"2157-6904","issn":["2157-6904","2157-6912"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006391718","display_name":"Fali Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-8321-6365"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Fali Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","The Pennsylvania State University, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-8321-6365","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5085548702","display_name":"Zhiwei Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-6153-2739"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhiwei Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","The Pennsylvania State University, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-6153-2739","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5081512661","display_name":"Xianren Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0283-4693"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xianren Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","The Pennsylvania State University, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0283-4693","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5053341638","display_name":"Zongyu Wu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8378-7632"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zongyu Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","The Pennsylvania State University, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8378-7632","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5114638160","display_name":"Tzuhao Mo","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I36788626","display_name":"California University of Pennsylvania","ror":"https://ror.org/01spssf70","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I36788626"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79576946","display_name":"University of Pennsylvania","ror":"https://ror.org/00b30xv10","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79576946"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"TzuHao Mo","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA","University of Pennsylvania, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-0975-8280","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79576946"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Pennsylvania, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I36788626"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5023436656","display_name":"Qiuhao Lu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2368-8410"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I919571938","display_name":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston","ror":"https://ror.org/03gds6c39","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qiuhao Lu","raw_affiliation_strings":["The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA","UTHealth Houston, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2368-8410","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"UTHealth Houston, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Wanjing Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-4978-5868"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I919571938","display_name":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston","ror":"https://ror.org/03gds6c39","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wanjing Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA","UTHealth Houston, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-4978-5868","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"UTHealth Houston, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5018641872","display_name":"Rui Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7292-4011"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I919571938","display_name":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston","ror":"https://ror.org/03gds6c39","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rui Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA","UTHealth Houston, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7292-4011","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"UTHealth Houston, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100929170","display_name":"Junjie Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3673-786X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Junjie Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","The Pennsylvania State University, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3673-786X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102008510","display_name":"Xianfeng Tang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1554-2761"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1311688040","display_name":"Amazon (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/04mv4n011","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1311688040"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xianfeng Tang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Amazon.com Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA","Amazon, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1554-2761","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Amazon.com Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1311688040"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Amazon, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1311688040"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090007199","display_name":"Qi He","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5257-6843"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1311688040","display_name":"Amazon (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/04mv4n011","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1311688040"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qi He","raw_affiliation_strings":["Amazon.com Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA","Amazon, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5257-6843","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Amazon.com Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1311688040"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Amazon, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1311688040"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101568942","display_name":"Yao Ma","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4985-8724"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165799507","display_name":"Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/01rtyzb94","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165799507"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yao Ma","raw_affiliation_strings":["Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA","Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4985-8724","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165799507"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165799507"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5010869663","display_name":"Ming Huang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7367-3626"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I919571938","display_name":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston","ror":"https://ror.org/03gds6c39","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ming Huang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA","UTHealth Houston, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7367-3626","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"UTHealth Houston, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I919571938"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5011048500","display_name":"Suhang Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3448-4878"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Suhang Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","The Pennsylvania State University, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3448-4878","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Pennsylvania State University, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":14,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":86.8101,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":50,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99949361,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"16","issue":"6","first_page":"1","last_page":"87"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9987999796867371,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9987999796867371,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.9909999966621399,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13702","display_name":"Machine Learning in Healthcare","score":0.9749000072479248,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/inference","display_name":"Inference","score":0.6428999900817871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/personalization","display_name":"Personalization","score":0.6243000030517578},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/domain","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","score":0.5561000108718872},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/domain-specific-language","display_name":"Domain-specific language","score":0.43619999289512634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/trustworthiness","display_name":"Trustworthiness","score":0.4352000057697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/taxonomy","display_name":"Taxonomy (biology)","score":0.41999998688697815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/resource","display_name":"Resource (disambiguation)","score":0.37470000982284546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.37049999833106995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cloud-computing","display_name":"Cloud computing","score":0.35989999771118164}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8410000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776214188","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q408386","display_name":"Inference","level":2,"score":0.6428999900817871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C183003079","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1000371","display_name":"Personalization","level":2,"score":0.6243000030517578},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36503486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11235244","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","level":2,"score":0.5561000108718872},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.5335999727249146},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C135257023","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q691358","display_name":"Domain-specific language","level":2,"score":0.43619999289512634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153701036","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q659974","display_name":"Trustworthiness","level":2,"score":0.4352000057697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58642233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8269924","display_name":"Taxonomy (biology)","level":2,"score":0.41999998688697815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C206345919","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20380951","display_name":"Resource (disambiguation)","level":2,"score":0.37470000982284546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.37049999833106995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79974875","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q483639","display_name":"Cloud computing","level":2,"score":0.35989999771118164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C65714651","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1662626","display_name":"Multihoming","level":4,"score":0.35359999537467957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207685749","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2088941","display_name":"Domain knowledge","level":2,"score":0.35199999809265137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.3465999960899353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779304628","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3503480","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","level":2,"score":0.3384000062942505},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3325999975204468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184356942","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830382","display_name":"Best practice","level":2,"score":0.3086000084877014},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776434776","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19246213","display_name":"Domain adaptation","level":3,"score":0.3084000051021576},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56739046","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192060","display_name":"Knowledge management","level":1,"score":0.29760000109672546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.29739999771118164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780233690","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q535347","display_name":"Transparency (behavior)","level":2,"score":0.2824999988079071},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3019252630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6549547","display_name":"Limited resources","level":2,"score":0.2808000147342682},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108759981","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q788590","display_name":"Authorization","level":2,"score":0.2766000032424927},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780598303","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65921492","display_name":"Flexibility (engineering)","level":2,"score":0.275299996137619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C46743427","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1341685","display_name":"Inference engine","level":3,"score":0.27469998598098755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C82876162","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17096504","display_name":"Latency (audio)","level":2,"score":0.26919999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186967261","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5082128","display_name":"Mobile device","level":2,"score":0.26420000195503235}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3768165","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3768165","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2492086750","display_name":"ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology","issn_l":"2157-6904","issn":["2157-6904","2157-6912"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8080813138","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"W911NF21-1-0198","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338281","funder_display_name":"Army Research Office"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338281","display_name":"Army Research Office","ror":"https://ror.org/05epdh915"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":71,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1502957213","https://openalex.org/W1516807289","https://openalex.org/W1545025361","https://openalex.org/W2069065514","https://openalex.org/W2105934661","https://openalex.org/W2155201359","https://openalex.org/W2489487449","https://openalex.org/W2599674900","https://openalex.org/W2606555609","https://openalex.org/W2610930722","https://openalex.org/W2744999500","https://openalex.org/W2750779823","https://openalex.org/W2799297864","https://openalex.org/W2899575547","https://openalex.org/W2930957955","https://openalex.org/W2971031791","https://openalex.org/W2986193249","https://openalex.org/W3044129898","https://openalex.org/W3154971029","https://openalex.org/W3169113923","https://openalex.org/W3186910431","https://openalex.org/W3194676777","https://openalex.org/W3212496002","https://openalex.org/W4205807230","https://openalex.org/W4225858632","https://openalex.org/W4238846128","https://openalex.org/W4239019441","https://openalex.org/W4250331344","https://openalex.org/W4281758439","https://openalex.org/W4283768109","https://openalex.org/W4285306484","https://openalex.org/W4287391717","https://openalex.org/W4288089799","https://openalex.org/W4294631238","https://openalex.org/W4296151208","https://openalex.org/W4306873598","https://openalex.org/W4307079201","https://openalex.org/W4308760184","https://openalex.org/W4367319708","https://openalex.org/W4367365526","https://openalex.org/W4368755730","https://openalex.org/W4380989763","https://openalex.org/W4380995299","https://openalex.org/W4385565879","https://openalex.org/W4385572828","https://openalex.org/W4386655779","https://openalex.org/W4387841511","https://openalex.org/W4388778348","https://openalex.org/W4388979610","https://openalex.org/W4389518895","https://openalex.org/W4389519153","https://openalex.org/W4389520139","https://openalex.org/W4389524302","https://openalex.org/W4391558518","https://openalex.org/W4392366624","https://openalex.org/W4392669813","https://openalex.org/W4392943591","https://openalex.org/W4396608701","https://openalex.org/W4399534355","https://openalex.org/W4400335653","https://openalex.org/W4401042451","https://openalex.org/W4402684073","https://openalex.org/W4404784189","https://openalex.org/W4406650295","https://openalex.org/W4409657429","https://openalex.org/W4412230188","https://openalex.org/W4412376859","https://openalex.org/W4412888943","https://openalex.org/W4413178899","https://openalex.org/W6893007900","https://openalex.org/W6894063673"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Large":[0],"language":[1],"models":[2,104,254],"(LLMs)":[3],"have":[4,249],"demonstrated":[5],"emergent":[6,215],"abilities":[7,216],"in":[8,23,66],"text":[9],"generation,":[10],"question":[11],"answering,":[12],"and":[13,18,30,40,58,72,98,101,111,118,135,151,166,202,217,235,244,255],"reasoning,":[14],"facilitating":[15],"various":[16,24],"tasks":[17,201],"domains.":[19],"Despite":[20],"their":[21,91,196],"proficiency":[22],"tasks,":[25],"LLMs":[26,63],"like":[27],"PaLM":[28],"540B":[29],"Llama-3.1":[31],"405B":[32],"face":[33],"limitations":[34],"due":[35,74],"to":[36,75,160,174,189,198,242],"large":[37],"parameter":[38],"sizes":[39],"computational":[41],"demands,":[42],"often":[43,64],"requiring":[44],"cloud":[45],"API":[46],"use,":[47],"which":[48],"raises":[49],"privacy":[50],"concerns,":[51],"limits":[52],"real-time":[53],"applications":[54,122],"on":[55,179,210,258],"edge":[56],"devices,":[57],"increases":[59],"fine-tuning":[60],"costs.":[61],"Additionally,":[62],"underperform":[65],"specialized":[67,80,200],"domains":[68],"such":[69],"as":[70],"healthcare":[71],"law":[73],"insufficient":[76],"domain-specific":[77],"knowledge,":[78],"necessitating":[79],"models.":[81],"Therefore,":[82],"Small":[83],"Language":[84],"Models":[85],"(SLMs)":[86],"are":[87,105],"increasingly":[88],"favored":[89],"for":[90,108,121,128,133,145,204,214,239],"low":[92],"inference":[93,131],"latency,":[94],"cost-effectiveness,":[95],"efficient":[96],"development,":[97],"easy":[99],"customization":[100],"adaptability.":[102],"These":[103],"particularly":[106],"well-suited":[107],"resource-limited":[109],"environments":[110],"domain":[112,136],"knowledge":[113,137],"acquisition,":[114,163],"addressing":[115],"LLMs\u2019":[116],"challenges":[117],"proving":[119],"ideal":[120],"that":[123],"require":[124],"localized":[125],"data":[126],"handling":[127],"privacy,":[129],"minimal":[130,212],"latency":[132],"efficiency,":[134],"acquisition":[138],"through":[139],"lightweight":[140],"fine-tuning.":[141],"The":[142,182],"rising":[143],"demand":[144],"SLMs":[146,185,194,246],"has":[147],"spurred":[148],"extensive":[149],"research":[150],"development.":[152],"However,":[153],"a":[154,176,230],"comprehensive":[155],"survey":[156,178],"investigating":[157],"issues":[158],"related":[159,256],"the":[161,211,218,251],"definition,":[162],"application,":[164],"enhancement,":[165],"reliability":[167],"of":[168,184,232],"SLM":[169,253],"remains":[170],"lacking,":[171],"prompting":[172],"us":[173],"conduct":[175],"detailed":[177],"these":[180],"topics.":[181],"definition":[183],"varies":[186],"widely;":[187],"thus,":[188],"standardize,":[190],"we":[191,228],"propose":[192],"defining":[193],"by":[195],"capability":[197],"perform":[199],"suitability":[203],"resource-constrained":[205],"settings,":[206],"setting":[207],"boundaries":[208],"based":[209],"size":[213,220],"maximum":[219],"sustainable":[221],"under":[222],"resource":[223],"constraints.":[224],"For":[225],"other":[226],"aspects,":[227],"provide":[229],"taxonomy":[231],"relevant":[233],"models/methods":[234],"develop":[236],"general":[237],"frameworks":[238],"each":[240],"category":[241],"enhance":[243],"utilize":[245],"effectively.":[247],"We":[248],"compiled":[250],"collected":[252],"methods":[257],"GitHub:":[259],"https://github.com/FairyFali/SLMs-Survey":[260],".":[261]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":27},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":23}],"updated_date":"2026-06-13T07:54:00.901334","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}