{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7109945592","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3721462.3770781","title":"XChainWatcher: Identifying Anomalies in Cross-Chain Bridges","display_name":"XChainWatcher: Identifying Anomalies in Cross-Chain Bridges","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-12-08","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7109945592","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3721462.3770781"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3721462.3770781","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3721462.3770781","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 26th International Middleware Conference","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3721462.3770781","any_repository_has_fulltext":null},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Andr\u00e9 Augusto","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7020-2087"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121345201","display_name":"Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento","ror":"https://ror.org/04mqy3p58","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I4210125590"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Andr\u00e9 Augusto","raw_affiliation_strings":["INESC-ID & T\u00e9cnico Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7020-2087","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"INESC-ID & T\u00e9cnico Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121345201"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Rafael Belchior","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4630-0688"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121345201","display_name":"Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento","ror":"https://ror.org/04mqy3p58","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I4210125590"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rafael Belchior","raw_affiliation_strings":["INESC-ID, T\u00e9cnico Lisboa & Blockdaemon, Lisbon, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4630-0688","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"INESC-ID, T\u00e9cnico Lisboa & Blockdaemon, Lisbon, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121345201"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Jonas Pfannschmidt","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1837-8592"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jonas Pfannschmidt","raw_affiliation_strings":["Blockdaemon, Dublin, Ireland"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1837-8592","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Blockdaemon, Dublin, Ireland","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Andr\u00e9 Vasconcelos","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0038-7199"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121345201","display_name":"Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento","ror":"https://ror.org/04mqy3p58","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I4210125590"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Andr\u00e9 Vasconcelos","raw_affiliation_strings":["INESC-ID, T\u00e9cnico Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0038-7199","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"INESC-ID, T\u00e9cnico Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121345201"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Miguel Correia","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7873-5531"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121345201","display_name":"Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento","ror":"https://ror.org/04mqy3p58","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121345201","https://openalex.org/I4210125590"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Miguel Correia","raw_affiliation_strings":["INESC-ID, IST, ULisboa, Lisbon, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7873-5531","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"INESC-ID, IST, ULisboa, Lisbon, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121345201"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121345201"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":4.7469,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95837546,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"413","last_page":"426"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.7505999803543091,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.7505999803543091,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11424","display_name":"Security and Verification in Computing","score":0.03539999946951866,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11719","display_name":"Data Quality and Management","score":0.02280000038444996,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1803","display_name":"Management Science and Operations Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/exploit","display_name":"Exploit","score":0.6728000044822693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/security-token","display_name":"Security token","score":0.5501999855041504},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/modular-design","display_name":"Modular design","score":0.5460000038146973},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/interoperability","display_name":"Interoperability","score":0.5446000099182129},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/middleware","display_name":"Middleware (distributed applications)","score":0.4499000012874603},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/safeguard","display_name":"Safeguard","score":0.4072999954223633},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-breach","display_name":"Data breach","score":0.38449999690055847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/set","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","score":0.37929999828338623}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165696696","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11287","display_name":"Exploit","level":2,"score":0.6728000044822693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.6256999969482422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5856999754905701},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48145219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1335365","display_name":"Security token","level":2,"score":0.5501999855041504},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C101468663","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1620158","display_name":"Modular design","level":2,"score":0.5460000038146973},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C20136886","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q749647","display_name":"Interoperability","level":2,"score":0.5446000099182129},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169468491","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q146923","display_name":"Middleware (distributed applications)","level":2,"score":0.4499000012874603},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780771206","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3271761","display_name":"Safeguard","level":2,"score":0.4072999954223633},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165609540","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1172486","display_name":"Data breach","level":2,"score":0.38449999690055847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.37929999828338623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192063788","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7063049","display_name":"Notional amount","level":2,"score":0.3668000102043152},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.3353999853134155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.3248000144958496},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C739882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560506","display_name":"Anomaly detection","level":2,"score":0.32170000672340393},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C93518851","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180160","display_name":"Metadata","level":2,"score":0.32010000944137573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43521106","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2165493","display_name":"Pipeline (software)","level":2,"score":0.305400013923645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C5655090","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192588","display_name":"Relational database","level":2,"score":0.2980000078678131},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108713360","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1824206","display_name":"Supply chain","level":2,"score":0.260699987411499},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199521495","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181487","display_name":"Audit","level":2,"score":0.2542000114917755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19768560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q320727","display_name":"Dependency (UML)","level":2,"score":0.2540999948978424},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C35525427","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q745881","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","level":2,"score":0.25049999356269836}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3721462.3770781","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3721462.3770781","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 26th International Middleware Conference","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3721462.3770781","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3721462.3770781","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 26th International Middleware Conference","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":8,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W192586572","https://openalex.org/W1776817391","https://openalex.org/W3202887189","https://openalex.org/W4308413541","https://openalex.org/W4367396531","https://openalex.org/W4387741178","https://openalex.org/W4389887771","https://openalex.org/W4402816481"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Cross-chain":[0],"bridges":[1,21,59,73],"are":[2,53,66],"a":[3,84,122,162],"blockchain":[4],"interoperability":[5],"middleware":[6],"that":[7,24,74,147,186],"supports":[8],"the":[9,39,69,113,137,145,158,167,223],"transfer":[10],"of":[11,19,41,71,124,151,199,227],"assets":[12],"and":[13,51,86,103,116,139,153,156,210],"data":[14,131],"across":[15,230],"blockchains.":[16],"However,":[17],"several":[18],"these":[20,42,119],"have":[22,25,37,189],"vulnerabilities":[23],"caused":[26],"3.2":[27],"billion":[28],"dollars":[29],"in":[30,96,166,237],"losses":[31,150],"since":[32],"May":[33],"2021.":[34],"Some":[35],"studies":[36,65],"revealed":[38],"existence":[40],"vulnerabilities,":[43],"but":[44,175,205],"there":[45,52],"is":[46],"little":[47],"quantitative":[48],"research":[49],"available,":[50],"no":[54,64],"safeguard":[55],"mechanisms":[56],"to":[57,149,193,216],"protect":[58],"from":[60,105,112,132],"such":[61,180],"attacks.":[62],"Furthermore,":[63],"available":[67],"on":[68,202,208],"practices":[70],"cross-chain":[72,92,183],"can":[75],"cause":[76],"financial":[77],"losses.":[78],"We":[79,169,221],"propose":[80],"XChainWatcher":[81,142],"(Cross-Chain":[82],"Watcher),":[83],"modular":[85],"extensible":[87],"logic-driven":[88],"anomaly":[89],"detector":[90],"for":[91],"bridges.":[93,141,220],"It":[94],"operates":[95],"three":[97,231],"main":[98],"phases:":[99],"(1)":[100],"decoding":[101],"events":[102],"transactions":[104,146,184],"multiple":[106],"blockchains,":[107,232],"(2)":[108],"building":[109],"logic":[110],"relations":[111,120],"extracted":[114],"data,":[115],"(3)":[117],"evaluating":[118],"against":[121],"set":[123],"detection":[125],"rules.":[126],"Using":[127],"XChainWatcher,":[128],"we":[129],"analyze":[130],"two":[133],"previously":[134],"attacked":[135],"bridges:":[136],"Ronin":[138],"Nomad":[140],"successfully":[143],"identified":[144],"led":[148],"$611M":[152],"$190M":[154],"(USD)":[155],"surpassed":[157],"results":[159],"obtained":[160],"by":[161,213],"reputable":[163],"security":[164],"firm":[165],"latter.":[168],"not":[170,188],"only":[171],"uncover":[172],"successful":[173],"attacks,":[174],"also":[176],"reveal":[177],"other":[178],"anomalies,":[179],"as":[181],"37":[182],"(cctx)":[185],"should":[187],"accepted,":[190],"failed":[191],"attempts":[192],"exploit":[194],"Nomad,":[195],"over":[196],"$7.8M":[197],"worth":[198],"tokens":[200],"locked":[201],"one":[203],"chain":[204],"never":[206],"released":[207],"Ethereum,":[209],"$200K":[211],"lost":[212],"users":[214],"due":[215],"inadequate":[217],"interaction":[218],"with":[219],"provide":[222],"first":[224],"open":[225],"dataset":[226],"81,000":[228],"cctxs":[229],"capturing":[233],"more":[234],"than":[235],"$4.2B":[236],"token":[238],"transfers.":[239]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-06-10T14:10:52.464848","created_date":"2025-12-08T00:00:00"}