{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4407953952","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3706628.3708879","title":"FAST: FPGA Acceleration of Fully Homomorphic Encryption with Efficient Bootstrapping","display_name":"FAST: FPGA Acceleration of Fully Homomorphic Encryption with Efficient Bootstrapping","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-02-26","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4407953952","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3706628.3708879"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3706628.3708879","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3706628.3708879","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 2025 ACM/SIGDA International Symposium on Field Programmable Gate Arrays","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"conference-paper","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3706628.3708879","any_repository_has_fulltext":null},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5004302525","display_name":"Zhihan Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9644-6283"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1174212","display_name":"University of Southern California","ror":"https://ror.org/03taz7m60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1174212"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhihan Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9644-6283","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1174212"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103832512","display_name":"Tian Ye","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9298-8906"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1174212","display_name":"University of Southern California","ror":"https://ror.org/03taz7m60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1174212"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tian Ye","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9298-8906","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1174212"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5042560222","display_name":"Rajgopal Kannan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8736-3012"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802705668","display_name":"United States Army Combat Capabilities Development Command","ror":"https://ror.org/02rdkx920","country_code":"US","type":"other","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1304082316","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I2802705668","https://openalex.org/I4210154437"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rajgopal Kannan","raw_affiliation_strings":["DEVCOM Army Research Office, Los Angeles, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8736-3012","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"DEVCOM Army Research Office, Los Angeles, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802705668"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5033166029","display_name":"Viktor K. Prasanna","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1609-8589"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1174212","display_name":"University of Southern California","ror":"https://ror.org/03taz7m60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1174212"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Viktor K. Prasanna","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1609-8589","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1174212"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":14.5204,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":10,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99023966,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"115","last_page":"126"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10951","display_name":"Cryptographic Implementations and Security","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11693","display_name":"Cryptography and Residue Arithmetic","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/homomorphic-encryption","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","score":0.8855600357055664},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bootstrapping","display_name":"Bootstrapping (finance)","score":0.8095784187316895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.760553240776062},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/acceleration","display_name":"Acceleration","score":0.7429158091545105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/field-programmable-gate-array","display_name":"Field-programmable gate array","score":0.6245500445365906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encryption","display_name":"Encryption","score":0.5083908438682556},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/embedded-system","display_name":"Embedded system","score":0.4209710359573364},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/parallel-computing","display_name":"Parallel computing","score":0.32053565979003906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.22008007764816284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.09798750281333923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/econometrics","display_name":"Econometrics","score":0.05031970143318176}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158338273","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2154943","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","level":3,"score":0.8855600357055664},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207609745","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4944086","display_name":"Bootstrapping (finance)","level":2,"score":0.8095784187316895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.760553240776062},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C117896860","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11376","display_name":"Acceleration","level":2,"score":0.7429158091545105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42935608","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190411","display_name":"Field-programmable gate array","level":2,"score":0.6245500445365906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.5083908438682556},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149635348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193040","display_name":"Embedded system","level":1,"score":0.4209710359573364},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C173608175","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q232661","display_name":"Parallel computing","level":1,"score":0.32053565979003906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.22008007764816284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.09798750281333923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149782125","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160039","display_name":"Econometrics","level":1,"score":0.05031970143318176},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74650414","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11397","display_name":"Classical mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3706628.3708879","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3706628.3708879","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 2025 ACM/SIGDA International Symposium on Field Programmable Gate Arrays","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3706628.3708879","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3706628.3708879","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 2025 ACM/SIGDA International Symposium on Field Programmable Gate Arrays","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Affordable and clean energy","score":0.5199999809265137,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/7"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3242512881","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"CSSI-2311870, SaTC-2104264","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320323817","funder_display_name":"Universitas Brawijaya"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320323817","display_name":"Universitas Brawijaya","ror":"https://ror.org/01wk3d929"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":38,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W774911181","https://openalex.org/W1647595406","https://openalex.org/W1880212920","https://openalex.org/W1910724553","https://openalex.org/W2003798170","https://openalex.org/W2007466965","https://openalex.org/W2031533839","https://openalex.org/W2098290658","https://openalex.org/W2768174108","https://openalex.org/W2794634409","https://openalex.org/W2794974431","https://openalex.org/W2903536544","https://openalex.org/W2934510082","https://openalex.org/W2942711826","https://openalex.org/W2966536036","https://openalex.org/W3005730048","https://openalex.org/W3012235108","https://openalex.org/W3094696138","https://openalex.org/W3101169101","https://openalex.org/W3168353929","https://openalex.org/W3173128495","https://openalex.org/W3205982643","https://openalex.org/W3207326900","https://openalex.org/W4280650077","https://openalex.org/W4281609193","https://openalex.org/W4281792301","https://openalex.org/W4293024101","https://openalex.org/W4307925365","https://openalex.org/W4311435672","https://openalex.org/W4313162841","https://openalex.org/W4360831809","https://openalex.org/W4360831815","https://openalex.org/W4378191149","https://openalex.org/W4380433155","https://openalex.org/W4380881143","https://openalex.org/W4389491906","https://openalex.org/W4401753241","https://openalex.org/W6600135713"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W1534274833","https://openalex.org/W3117246195","https://openalex.org/W156620619","https://openalex.org/W2098233217","https://openalex.org/W2914363205","https://openalex.org/W2152926062","https://openalex.org/W2949607150","https://openalex.org/W2950312267","https://openalex.org/W3123945077","https://openalex.org/W2398715209"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Bootstrapping":[0,97],"is":[1,21,106],"a":[2,122],"critical":[3],"operation":[4],"in":[5,53,132],"Fully":[6],"Homomorphic":[7],"Encryption":[8],"(FHE)":[9],"for":[10,23,40,49,66,116,156,174,192],"privacy-preserving":[11],"computation.":[12],"Due":[13],"to":[14,110,127],"its":[15,102],"significant":[16,114],"computational":[17,103],"overhead,":[18],"accelerating":[19],"bootstrapping":[20],"crucial":[22],"practical":[24],"FHE":[25,42,164],"applications":[26],"involving":[27],"deep":[28,163],"evaluation":[29,79],"circuits.":[30],"In":[31,118],"this":[32],"paper,":[33],"we":[34,120,166],"introduce":[35],"FAST,":[36],"an":[37,91],"FPGA-based":[38],"accelerator":[39,109],"efficient":[41,138],"bootstrapping.":[43,117],"We":[44,73,89],"propose":[45],"novel":[46,123],"datapath":[47,64],"optimizations":[48],"two":[50],"key":[51],"operations":[52],"bootstrapping:":[54],"homomorphic":[55],"linear":[56],"transformation":[57],"(HLT)":[58],"and":[59,100,137,147,153,184],"polynomial":[60,78],"evaluation.":[61],"Our":[62],"memory-efficient":[63],"designed":[65],"HLT":[67],"significantly":[68],"reduces":[69],"off-chip":[70],"ciphertext":[71],"access.":[72],"also":[74],"speed":[75],"up":[76],"the":[77,83,95,107,143,180,186],"process":[80],"by":[81,190],"reducing":[82],"number":[84],"of":[85,94,162],"required":[86],"HE":[87],"operations.":[88],"conduct":[90],"in-depth":[92],"analysis":[93],"Advanced":[96],"Algorithm":[98],"(ABA)":[99],"highlight":[101],"advantages.":[104],"FAST":[105,150,169],"first":[108],"support":[111],"ABA,":[112],"demonstrating":[113],"speedup":[115,173],"addition,":[119],"develop":[121],"versatile":[124],"permutation":[125,130],"circuit":[126],"handle":[128],"diverse":[129],"patterns":[131],"FHE,":[133],"achieving":[134],"high":[135],"throughput":[136],"resource":[139],"utilization.":[140],"Compared":[141],"with":[142,179],"state-of-the-art":[144],"(SOTA)":[145],"GPU":[146,182],"FPGA":[148,188],"designs,":[149],"achieves":[151],"8.84\u00d7":[152],"5.89\u00d7":[154],"speedups":[155],"bootstrapping,":[157],"respectively.":[158],"As":[159],"illustrative":[160],"examples":[161],"applications,":[165],"show":[167],"that":[168],"delivers":[170],"over":[171],"20\u00d7":[172],"logistic":[175],"regression":[176],"training":[177],"compared":[178],"SOTA":[181,187],"implementation":[183],"outperforms":[185],"design":[189],"1.43\u00d7":[191],"ResNet-20":[193],"inference.":[194]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4}],"updated_date":"2026-08-18T07:49:30.821534","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}