{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4407953233","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3701551.3703562","title":"Towards Reliable Latent Knowledge Estimation in LLMs: Zero-Prompt Many-Shot Based Factual Knowledge Extraction","display_name":"Towards Reliable Latent Knowledge Estimation in LLMs: Zero-Prompt Many-Shot Based Factual Knowledge Extraction","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-02-26","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4407953233","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3701551.3703562"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3701551.3703562","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3701551.3703562","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Eighteenth ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"conference-paper","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3701551.3703562","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5109205163","display_name":"Qinyuan Wu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1453-9643"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121786","display_name":"Max Planck Institute for Software Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/02pe2kf23","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149899117","https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qinyuan Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1453-9643","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100601166","display_name":"Mohammad Aflah Khan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6325-3746"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121786","display_name":"Max Planck Institute for Software Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/02pe2kf23","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149899117","https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210162871","display_name":"Saarbr\u00fccken Stadtwerke (Germany)","ror":"https://ror.org/05h5kva18","country_code":"DE","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210162871"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mohammad Aflah Khan","raw_affiliation_strings":["MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, India","MPI-SWS Saarbruecken, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6325-3746","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786","https://openalex.org/I4210162871"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS Saarbruecken, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103201369","display_name":"Soumi Das","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6933-5744"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121786","display_name":"Max Planck Institute for Software Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/02pe2kf23","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149899117","https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210162871","display_name":"Saarbr\u00fccken Stadtwerke (Germany)","ror":"https://ror.org/05h5kva18","country_code":"DE","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210162871"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Soumi Das","raw_affiliation_strings":["MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, India","MPI-SWS Saarbruecken, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6933-5744","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786","https://openalex.org/I4210162871"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS Saarbruecken, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5048896019","display_name":"Vedant Nanda","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121786","display_name":"Max Planck Institute for Software Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/02pe2kf23","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149899117","https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vedant Nanda","raw_affiliation_strings":["MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-7158-5627","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006074648","display_name":"Bishwamittra Ghosh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2971-8975"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121786","display_name":"Max Planck Institute for Software Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/02pe2kf23","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149899117","https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Bishwamittra Ghosh","raw_affiliation_strings":["MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2971-8975","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5037961350","display_name":"Camila Kolling","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7354-6886"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121786","display_name":"Max Planck Institute for Software Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/02pe2kf23","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149899117","https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Camila Kolling","raw_affiliation_strings":["MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8163-769X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032165991","display_name":"Till Speicher","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121786","display_name":"Max Planck Institute for Software Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/02pe2kf23","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149899117","https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Till Speicher","raw_affiliation_strings":["MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-1172-2525","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5051818971","display_name":"Laurent Bindschaedler","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0559-631X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121786","display_name":"Max Planck Institute for Software Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/02pe2kf23","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149899117","https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Laurent Bindschaedler","raw_affiliation_strings":["MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0559-631X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5067688305","display_name":"Krishna P. Gummadi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1256-8800"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210121786","display_name":"Max Planck Institute for Software Systems","ror":"https://ror.org/02pe2kf23","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149899117","https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Krishna Gummadi","raw_affiliation_strings":["MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1256-8800","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"MPI-SWS, Saarbruecken, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210121786"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005972547","display_name":"Evimaria Terzi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7809-9993"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I111088046","display_name":"Boston University","ror":"https://ror.org/05qwgg493","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I111088046"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Evimaria Terzi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Boston University, Boston, USA","Boston University Boston, Massachusetts, United States"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7809-9993","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Boston University, Boston, USA","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Boston University Boston, Massachusetts, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I111088046"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"754","last_page":"763"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9991999864578247,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9991999864578247,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.9972000122070312,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11719","display_name":"Data Quality and Management","score":0.9919999837875366,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1803","display_name":"Management Science and Operations Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/estimation","display_name":"Estimation","score":0.5647687911987305},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5298421382904053},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/shot","display_name":"Shot (pellet)","score":0.5184175968170166},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/extraction","display_name":"Extraction (chemistry)","score":0.5158835649490356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/zero","display_name":"Zero (linguistics)","score":0.46466219425201416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.3729105591773987},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.1546216607093811},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/chromatography","display_name":"Chromatography","score":0.08494150638580322},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/chemistry","display_name":"Chemistry","score":0.07662832736968994}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C96250715","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q965330","display_name":"Estimation","level":2,"score":0.5647687911987305},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5298421382904053},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778344882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q278938","display_name":"Shot (pellet)","level":2,"score":0.5184175968170166},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C4725764","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844704","display_name":"Extraction (chemistry)","level":2,"score":0.5158835649490356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780813799","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3274237","display_name":"Zero (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.46466219425201416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3729105591773987},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.1546216607093811},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43617362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170050","display_name":"Chromatography","level":1,"score":0.08494150638580322},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.07662832736968994},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201995342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q682496","display_name":"Systems engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178790620","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11351","display_name":"Organic chemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3701551.3703562","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3701551.3703562","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Eighteenth ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.mpg.de:item_3644919","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116/0000-0011-0150-1","pdf_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116/0000-0011-A9E0-1","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400654","display_name":"MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I149899117","host_organization_name":"Max Planck Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I149899117"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"WSDM '25: Proceedings of the Eighteenth ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/conferenceObject"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3701551.3703562","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3701551.3703562","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Eighteenth ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":14,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2979826702","https://openalex.org/W2998557616","https://openalex.org/W3010336026","https://openalex.org/W3044438666","https://openalex.org/W3106234277","https://openalex.org/W3199958362","https://openalex.org/W4226278401","https://openalex.org/W4309674289","https://openalex.org/W4310926773","https://openalex.org/W4366548330","https://openalex.org/W4387321091","https://openalex.org/W4389518756","https://openalex.org/W4391156274","https://openalex.org/W6600433979"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2074502265","https://openalex.org/W4214877189","https://openalex.org/W2773965352","https://openalex.org/W2381179799","https://openalex.org/W2980279061","https://openalex.org/W2334685461","https://openalex.org/W2366718574","https://openalex.org/W2359774528","https://openalex.org/W4298312966","https://openalex.org/W2325697621"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"In":[0],"this":[1],"paper,":[2],"we":[3,29,94,124],"focus":[4],"on":[5,80],"the":[6,50,59,66,102,116,121,130,155,163,189,197],"challenging":[7],"task":[8],"of":[9,54,83,101,118,129,133,136,150,172,199],"reliably":[10],"estimating":[11],"factual":[12,39,60,131,164],"knowledge":[13,61,71,104,132,157,165,198],"that":[14,96,175,185],"is":[15,73,90],"embedded":[16,105],"inside":[17],"large":[18,148],"language":[19],"models":[20,171,186,201],"(LLMs).":[21],"To":[22],"avoid":[23],"reliability":[24],"concerns":[25],"with":[26],"prior":[27],"approaches,":[28],"propose":[30],"to":[31,56,87],"eliminate":[32],"prompt":[33],"engineering":[34],"when":[35],"probing":[36],"LLMs":[37,55],"for":[38],"knowledge.":[40],"Our":[41,70],"approach,":[42],"called":[43],"Zero-Prompt":[44],"Latent":[45],"Knowledge":[46],"Estimator":[47],"(ZP-LKE),":[48],"leverages":[49],"in-context":[51],"learning":[52],"ability":[53],"communicate":[57],"both":[58,74],"question":[62],"as":[63,65],"well":[64],"expected":[67],"answer":[68],"format.":[69],"estimator":[72],"conceptually":[75],"simpler":[76],"(i.e.,":[77,89],"doesn't":[78],"depend":[79],"meta-linguistic":[81],"judgments":[82],"LLMs)":[84],"and":[85,93,152,170,194,202],"easier":[86],"apply":[88],"not":[91],"LLM-specific),":[92],"demonstrate":[95],"it":[97],"can":[98],"surface":[99],"more":[100],"latent":[103],"in":[106,162,188,196],"LLMs.":[107],"We":[108,159],"also":[109],"investigate":[110],"how":[111],"different":[112,167,173],"design":[113],"choices":[114],"affect":[115],"performance":[117],"ZP-LKE.":[119],"Using":[120],"proposed":[122],"estimator,":[123],"perform":[125],"a":[126,134,147],"large-scale":[127],"evaluation":[128],"variety":[135],"open-source":[137],"LLMs,":[138],"like":[139],"OPT,":[140],"Pythia,":[141],"Llama(2),":[142],"Mistral,":[143],"Gemma,":[144],"etc.":[145],"over":[146],"set":[149],"relations":[151,177],"facts":[153,191],"from":[154],"Wikidata":[156],"base.":[158],"observe":[160],"differences":[161,195],"between":[166],"model":[168],"families":[169],"sizes,":[174],"some":[176],"are":[178],"consistently":[179],"better":[180],"known":[181],"than":[182],"others":[183],"but":[184],"differ":[187],"precise":[190],"they":[192],"know,":[193],"base":[200],"their":[203],"finetuned":[204],"counterparts.":[205],"Code":[206],"available":[207],"at:":[208],"https://github.com/QinyuanWu0710/ZeroPrompt_LKE":[209]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-07-22T07:51:19.307946","created_date":"2025-02-27T00:00:00"}