{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4402169037","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3691626","title":"A Survey of Text Watermarking in the Era of Large Language Models","display_name":"A Survey of Text Watermarking in the Era of Large Language Models","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-09-03","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4402169037","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3691626"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3691626","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3691626","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S157921468","display_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","issn_l":"0360-0300","issn":["0360-0300","1557-7341"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"review","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3691626","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102845658","display_name":"Aiwei Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4965-8263"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99065089","display_name":"Tsinghua University","ror":"https://ror.org/03cve4549","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Aiwei Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Tsinghua University, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4965-8263","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Tsinghua University, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101279848","display_name":"Leyi Pan","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99065089","display_name":"Tsinghua University","ror":"https://ror.org/03cve4549","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Leyi Pan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Tsinghua University, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0859-2203","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Tsinghua University, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5073276043","display_name":"Yijian Lu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I177725633","display_name":"Chinese University of Hong Kong","ror":"https://ror.org/00t33hh48","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I177725633"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yijian Lu","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-1852-9829","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177725633"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5086265590","display_name":"Jingjing Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9018-3039"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I177725633","display_name":"Chinese University of Hong Kong","ror":"https://ror.org/00t33hh48","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I177725633"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jingjing Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9018-3039","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177725633"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5043651092","display_name":"Xuming Hu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6075-4224"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xuming Hu","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology - Guangzhou Campus, Guangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6075-4224","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology - Guangzhou Campus, Guangzhou, China","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100672722","display_name":"Xi Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2111-7385"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I139759216","display_name":"Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications","ror":"https://ror.org/04w9fbh59","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I139759216"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xi Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2111-7385","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I139759216"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5030845033","display_name":"Lijie Wen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0358-3160"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I99065089","display_name":"Tsinghua University","ror":"https://ror.org/03cve4549","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lijie Wen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Tsinghua University, Beijing, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0358-3160","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Tsinghua University, Beijing, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5042251906","display_name":"Irwin King","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8106-6447"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I177725633","display_name":"Chinese University of Hong Kong","ror":"https://ror.org/00t33hh48","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I177725633"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Irwin King","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8106-6447","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177725633"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101862104","display_name":"Hui Xiong","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6016-6465"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hui Xiong","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology - Guangzhou Campus, Guangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6016-6465","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology - Guangzhou Campus, Guangzhou, China","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5036357902","display_name":"Philip S. Yu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3491-5968"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39422238","display_name":"University of Illinois Chicago","ror":"https://ror.org/02mpq6x41","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39422238"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Philip Yu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, United States"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3491-5968","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39422238"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":10,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5102845658"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I99065089"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":10.2373,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":43,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.98911133,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"57","issue":"2","first_page":"1","last_page":"36"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10388","display_name":"Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10388","display_name":"Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":0.9864000082015991,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13999","display_name":"Digital Rights Management and Security","score":0.9700000286102295,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8873962759971619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/digital-watermarking","display_name":"Digital watermarking","score":0.6901244521141052},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-model","display_name":"Language model","score":0.4295371174812317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.4267914295196533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-retrieval","display_name":"Information retrieval","score":0.39242708683013916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.3869960308074951},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.37968921661376953}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8873962759971619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C150817343","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q875932","display_name":"Digital watermarking","level":3,"score":0.6901244521141052},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.4295371174812317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.4267914295196533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C23123220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816826","display_name":"Information retrieval","level":1,"score":0.39242708683013916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.3869960308074951},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.37968921661376953},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3691626","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3691626","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S157921468","display_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","issn_l":"0360-0300","issn":["0360-0300","1557-7341"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:repository.hkust.edu.hk:1783.1-147427","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://repository.hkust.edu.hk/ir/Record/1783.1-147427","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401796","display_name":"Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","host_organization_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3691626","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3691626","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S157921468","display_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","issn_l":"0360-0300","issn":["0360-0300","1557-7341"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality Education","score":0.6899999976158142,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":120,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1593271688","https://openalex.org/W1605292408","https://openalex.org/W1975586457","https://openalex.org/W2011200687","https://openalex.org/W2083055907","https://openalex.org/W2099278641","https://openalex.org/W2108498102","https://openalex.org/W2112507198","https://openalex.org/W2146170623","https://openalex.org/W2148437670","https://openalex.org/W2518688495","https://openalex.org/W2579318729","https://openalex.org/W2588990876","https://openalex.org/W2600463316","https://openalex.org/W2602856279","https://openalex.org/W2612431505","https://openalex.org/W2790136966","https://openalex.org/W2794557536","https://openalex.org/W2803028604","https://openalex.org/W2889326796","https://openalex.org/W2914238450","https://openalex.org/W2950681488","https://openalex.org/W2963339397","https://openalex.org/W2970641574","https://openalex.org/W2994928925","https://openalex.org/W3006381853","https://openalex.org/W3006625877","https://openalex.org/W3034999214","https://openalex.org/W3043430239","https://openalex.org/W3156309620","https://openalex.org/W3158209167","https://openalex.org/W3163516254","https://openalex.org/W3176393001","https://openalex.org/W3177813494","https://openalex.org/W3194190570","https://openalex.org/W3201174429","https://openalex.org/W3210860486","https://openalex.org/W4225108562","https://openalex.org/W4226315989","https://openalex.org/W4226399820","https://openalex.org/W4229005866","https://openalex.org/W4235505822","https://openalex.org/W4281763794","https://openalex.org/W4285077564","https://openalex.org/W4285274433","https://openalex.org/W4285306484","https://openalex.org/W4296567394","https://openalex.org/W4321472057","https://openalex.org/W4321605350","https://openalex.org/W4322718191","https://openalex.org/W4353113513","https://openalex.org/W4360836968","https://openalex.org/W4360891421","https://openalex.org/W4366588626","https://openalex.org/W4376166895","https://openalex.org/W4377029209","https://openalex.org/W4378465438","https://openalex.org/W4378771612","https://openalex.org/W4382567762","https://openalex.org/W4383199672","https://openalex.org/W4384561707","https://openalex.org/W4385437823","https://openalex.org/W4385570262","https://openalex.org/W4385573862","https://openalex.org/W4385894687","https://openalex.org/W4386272920","https://openalex.org/W4386937056","https://openalex.org/W4387596631","https://openalex.org/W4387687535","https://openalex.org/W4387838318","https://openalex.org/W4388092540","https://openalex.org/W4388650587","https://openalex.org/W4388685331","https://openalex.org/W4389010465","https://openalex.org/W4389325647","https://openalex.org/W4389364428","https://openalex.org/W4390489554","https://openalex.org/W4391494845","https://openalex.org/W4391966586","https://openalex.org/W4392011983","https://openalex.org/W4392019832","https://openalex.org/W4392136010","https://openalex.org/W4392181737","https://openalex.org/W4392353733","https://openalex.org/W4392678087","https://openalex.org/W4392736926","https://openalex.org/W4392874031","https://openalex.org/W4392929879","https://openalex.org/W4392971839","https://openalex.org/W4393063240","https://openalex.org/W4395483066","https://openalex.org/W4399252013","https://openalex.org/W4399425596","https://openalex.org/W4400434905","https://openalex.org/W4400529431","https://openalex.org/W4401042709","https://openalex.org/W4401043209","https://openalex.org/W4401213616","https://openalex.org/W4402352366","https://openalex.org/W4402671579","https://openalex.org/W4402671837","https://openalex.org/W4402671946","https://openalex.org/W4402672097","https://openalex.org/W4402684236","https://openalex.org/W4404782027","https://openalex.org/W4404783813","https://openalex.org/W6749879876","https://openalex.org/W6781243300","https://openalex.org/W6798182279","https://openalex.org/W6811129797","https://openalex.org/W6811340617","https://openalex.org/W6850936240","https://openalex.org/W6852942805","https://openalex.org/W6857123808","https://openalex.org/W6857509515","https://openalex.org/W6860720448","https://openalex.org/W6863013757","https://openalex.org/W6863373318","https://openalex.org/W6863380363","https://openalex.org/W6866732650"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2361629745","https://openalex.org/W2107922825","https://openalex.org/W3094285444","https://openalex.org/W1568204688","https://openalex.org/W2381262728","https://openalex.org/W2111592878","https://openalex.org/W1846726187","https://openalex.org/W2009856579","https://openalex.org/W1593964766","https://openalex.org/W2387614453"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Text":[0],"watermarking":[1,37,73,87,94,118,142],"algorithms":[2,38,51],"are":[3],"crucial":[4],"for":[5,48,92,116,127],"protecting":[6],"the":[7,68,145],"copyright":[8],"of":[9,67,71,84,140,147],"textual":[10],"content.":[11],"Historically,":[12],"their":[13,40,54,97],"capabilities":[14],"and":[15,82,105,120,124],"application":[16,114],"scenarios":[17,115],"were":[18],"limited.":[19],"However,":[20],"recent":[21],"advancements":[22],"in":[23,144],"large":[24],"language":[25],"models":[26],"(LLMs)":[27],"have":[28],"revolutionized":[29],"these":[30,50],"techniques.":[31],"LLMs":[32],"not":[33],"only":[34],"enhance":[35],"text":[36,72,86,93,101,117,128,141],"with":[39,136],"advanced":[41],"abilities":[42],"but":[43],"also":[44],"create":[45],"a":[46,64,137],"need":[47],"employing":[49],"to":[52,133],"protect":[53],"own":[55],"copyrights":[56],"or":[57,102,109],"prevent":[58],"potential":[59,113],"misuse.":[60],"This":[61,130],"work":[62],"conducts":[63],"comprehensive":[65],"survey":[66,131],"current":[69,122],"state":[70],"technology,":[74],"covering":[75],"four":[76],"main":[77],"aspects:":[78],"(1)":[79],"an":[80],"overview":[81],"comparison":[83],"different":[85],"techniques;":[88],"(2)":[89],"evaluation":[90],"methods":[91],"algorithms,":[95],"including":[96],"detectability,":[98],"impact":[99],"on":[100],"LLM":[103],"quality,":[104],"robustness":[106],"under":[107],"target":[108],"untargeted":[110],"attacks;":[111],"(3)":[112],"technology;":[119],"(4)":[121],"challenges":[123],"future":[125],"directions":[126],"watermarking.":[129],"aims":[132],"provide":[134],"researchers":[135],"thorough":[138],"understanding":[139],"technology":[143],"era":[146],"LLMs,":[148],"thereby":[149],"promoting":[150],"its":[151],"further":[152],"advancement.":[153]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":33},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2025-11-06T03:46:38.306776","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}