{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4400378670","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3676955","title":"SoK: Fully Homomorphic Encryption Accelerators","display_name":"SoK: Fully Homomorphic Encryption Accelerators","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-07-05","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4400378670","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3676955"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3676955","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3676955","pdf_url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3676955","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S157921468","display_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","issn_l":"0360-0300","issn":["0360-0300","1557-7341"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"bronze","oa_url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3676955","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071584772","display_name":"Junxue Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6926-7801"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I889458895","display_name":"University of Hong Kong","ror":"https://ror.org/02zhqgq86","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I889458895"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Junxue Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China and Clustar, Hong Kong, China","Clustar, Hong Kong Hong Kong"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6926-7801","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China and Clustar, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079","https://openalex.org/I889458895"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Clustar, Hong Kong Hong Kong","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5028716031","display_name":"Xiaodian Cheng","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3696-064X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiaodian Cheng","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Hong Kong"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3696-064X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Hong Kong","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100693653","display_name":"Yang Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4393-1791"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I889458895","display_name":"University of Hong Kong","ror":"https://ror.org/02zhqgq86","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I889458895"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Liu Yang","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China and Clustar, Hong Kong, China","Clustar, Hong Kong Hong Kong"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4393-1791","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China and Clustar, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079","https://openalex.org/I889458895"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Clustar, Hong Kong Hong Kong","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022806757","display_name":"Jinbin Hu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8216-9683"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jinbin Hu","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Hong Kong"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8216-9683","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Hong Kong","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5058120371","display_name":"Ximeng Liu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4238-3295"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I80947539","display_name":"Fuzhou University","ror":"https://ror.org/011xvna82","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I80947539"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ximeng Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4238-3295","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I80947539"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100438001","display_name":"Kai Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2587-6028"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kai Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Hong Kong"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2587-6028","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Hong Kong","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":13.2804,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":54,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99054789,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"56","issue":"12","first_page":"1","last_page":"32"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11017","display_name":"Chaos-based Image/Signal Encryption","score":0.9988999962806702,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10951","display_name":"Cryptographic Implementations and Security","score":0.9987999796867371,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8852810859680176},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/homomorphic-encryption","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","score":0.8079809546470642},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encryption","display_name":"Encryption","score":0.5521041750907898},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.2876640558242798}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8852810859680176},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158338273","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2154943","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","level":3,"score":0.8079809546470642},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.5521041750907898},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.2876640558242798}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3676955","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3676955","pdf_url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3676955","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S157921468","display_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","issn_l":"0360-0300","issn":["0360-0300","1557-7341"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:repository.hkust.edu.hk:1783.1-132573","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://repository.hkust.edu.hk/ir/Record/1783.1-132573","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401796","display_name":"Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","host_organization_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3676955","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3676955","pdf_url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3676955","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S157921468","display_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","issn_l":"0360-0300","issn":["0360-0300","1557-7341"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Computing Surveys","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9","display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","score":0.5899999737739563}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1683999813","display_name":"\u4f4e\u65f6\u5ef6\u901a\u7528NFV\u6545\u969c\u6062\u590d\u4e0e\u5f39\u6027\u4f38\u7f29\u65b9\u6cd5\u7814\u7a76","funder_award_id":"62062005","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4463171799","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2022JJ30618","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322843","funder_display_name":"Natural Science Foundation of\u00a0Hunan Province"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322843","display_name":"Natural Science Foundation of\u00a0Hunan Province","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4400378670.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":49,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W50045167","https://openalex.org/W56544557","https://openalex.org/W913176383","https://openalex.org/W1599862784","https://openalex.org/W1966731635","https://openalex.org/W1999941863","https://openalex.org/W2042872772","https://openalex.org/W2061171222","https://openalex.org/W2068417550","https://openalex.org/W2069441027","https://openalex.org/W2077110374","https://openalex.org/W2098290658","https://openalex.org/W2132172731","https://openalex.org/W2177209050","https://openalex.org/W2309997581","https://openalex.org/W2401959250","https://openalex.org/W2415881634","https://openalex.org/W2537286916","https://openalex.org/W2554750353","https://openalex.org/W2582794060","https://openalex.org/W2606882085","https://openalex.org/W2701059868","https://openalex.org/W2759027818","https://openalex.org/W2766393794","https://openalex.org/W2768174108","https://openalex.org/W2794634409","https://openalex.org/W2912213068","https://openalex.org/W2966536036","https://openalex.org/W2979557494","https://openalex.org/W3006531732","https://openalex.org/W3012235108","https://openalex.org/W3019884349","https://openalex.org/W3079221395","https://openalex.org/W3094696138","https://openalex.org/W3109801878","https://openalex.org/W3120341667","https://openalex.org/W3139569600","https://openalex.org/W3158044478","https://openalex.org/W3173128495","https://openalex.org/W3207326900","https://openalex.org/W3213220428","https://openalex.org/W4205474236","https://openalex.org/W4229005414","https://openalex.org/W4232836212","https://openalex.org/W4281609193","https://openalex.org/W4281699322","https://openalex.org/W4281792301","https://openalex.org/W4320154905","https://openalex.org/W4394922976"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391375266","https://openalex.org/W2748952813","https://openalex.org/W2539930818","https://openalex.org/W4393118461","https://openalex.org/W4390664647","https://openalex.org/W3012147850","https://openalex.org/W4313300189","https://openalex.org/W2949835517","https://openalex.org/W2601739120","https://openalex.org/W4401752887"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Fully":[0],"Homomorphic":[1],"Encryption":[2],"(FHE)":[3],"is":[4,17],"a":[5,62,101,118],"key":[6],"technology":[7],"enabling":[8],"privacy-preserving":[9],"computing.":[10],"However,":[11],"the":[12,23,57,66,91,125,140],"fundamental":[13],"challenge":[14],"of":[15,94,111],"FHE":[16,42,68,97,114,146],"its":[18],"inefficiency,":[19],"due":[20],"primarily":[21],"to":[22,60,99,116,138],"underlying":[24],"polynomial":[25],"computations":[26],"with":[27,124],"high":[28],"computation":[29],"complexity":[30],"and":[31,51,83,131,143],"extremely":[32],"time-consuming":[33],"ciphertext":[34],"maintenance":[35],"operations.":[36],"To":[37],"tackle":[38],"this":[39],"challenge,":[40],"various":[41],"accelerators":[43,98,115],"have":[44],"recently":[45],"been":[46],"proposed":[47],"by":[48],"both":[49,129],"research":[50],"industrial":[52],"communities.":[53],"This":[54],"article":[55],"takes":[56],"first":[58,86],"initiative":[59],"conduct":[61],"systematic":[63],"study":[64],"on":[65,90,121],"14":[67],"accelerators:":[69],"cuHE/cuFHE,":[70],"nuFHE,":[71],"HEAT,":[72],"HEAX,":[73],"HEXL,":[74],"HEXL-FPGA,":[75],"100\u00d7,":[76],"F1,":[77],"CraterLake,":[78],"BTS,":[79],"ARK,":[80],"Poseidon,":[81],"FAB,":[82],"TensorFHE.":[84],"We":[85],"make":[87],"our":[88],"observations":[89],"evolution":[92],"trajectory":[93],"these":[95],"existing":[96],"establish":[100],"qualitative":[102,130],"connection":[103],"between":[104],"them.":[105,122],"Then,":[106],"we":[107,134],"perform":[108],"testbed":[109],"evaluations":[110],"representative":[112],"open-source":[113],"provide":[117],"quantitative":[119,132],"comparison":[120],"Finally,":[123],"insights":[126],"learned":[127],"from":[128],"studies,":[133],"discuss":[135],"potential":[136],"directions":[137],"inform":[139],"future":[141],"design":[142],"implementation":[144],"for":[145],"accelerators.":[147]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":35},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":10}],"updated_date":"2026-07-15T18:14:33.161393","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}