{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4400190921","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3675396","title":"Word Closure-Based Metamorphic Testing for Machine Translation","display_name":"Word Closure-Based Metamorphic Testing for Machine Translation","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-07-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4400190921","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3675396"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3675396","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3675396","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S142627899","display_name":"ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology","issn_l":"1049-331X","issn":["1049-331X","1557-7392"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100746280","display_name":"Xiaoyuan Xie","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2828-7165"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN","HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiaoyuan Xie","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China","Department of Computer Science and Engineer-ing, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China","Songqiang Chen,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2828-7165","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineer-ing, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Songqiang Chen,","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071151471","display_name":"Shuo Jin","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN","HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shuo Jin","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China","Department of Computer Science and Engineer-ing, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China","Songqiang Chen,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5761-5290","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineer-ing, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Songqiang Chen,","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077331062","display_name":"Songqiang Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1220-8728"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN","HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Songqiang Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","Department of Computer Science and Engineer-ing, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China","School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China;","Songqiang Chen,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1220-8728","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineer-ing, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Songqiang Chen,","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5034057959","display_name":"Shing-Chi Cheung","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3508-7172"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I37461747","display_name":"Wuhan University","ror":"https://ror.org/033vjfk17","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]}],"countries":["CN","HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shing-Chi Cheung","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","Department of Computer Science and Engineer-ing, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China","School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China;","Songqiang Chen,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3508-7172","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineer-ing, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science, Wuhan University, China;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I37461747"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Songqiang Chen,","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.6427,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":6,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.91250456,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"33","issue":"8","first_page":"1","last_page":"46"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10743","display_name":"Software Testing and Debugging Techniques","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10743","display_name":"Software Testing and Debugging Techniques","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9894000291824341,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12127","display_name":"Software System Performance and Reliability","score":0.9869999885559082,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.867143452167511},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-translation","display_name":"Machine translation","score":0.6367438435554504},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/word","display_name":"Word (group theory)","score":0.6248348951339722},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/oracle","display_name":"Oracle","score":0.5705666542053223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sentence","display_name":"Sentence","score":0.5640743374824524},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/translation","display_name":"Translation (biology)","score":0.5601217746734619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.5161212682723999},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.47539886832237244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/closure","display_name":"Closure (psychology)","score":0.470541775226593},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transfer-based-machine-translation","display_name":"Transfer-based machine translation","score":0.4548840820789337},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.39393407106399536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/speech-recognition","display_name":"Speech recognition","score":0.3210495114326477},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/example-based-machine-translation","display_name":"Example-based machine translation","score":0.31852471828460693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.24441972374916077}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.867143452167511},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203005215","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79798","display_name":"Machine translation","level":2,"score":0.6367438435554504},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C90805587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10944557","display_name":"Word (group theory)","level":2,"score":0.6248348951339722},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55166926","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2892946","display_name":"Oracle","level":2,"score":0.5705666542053223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777530160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41796","display_name":"Sentence","level":2,"score":0.5640743374824524},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149364088","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185917","display_name":"Translation (biology)","level":4,"score":0.5601217746734619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.5161212682723999},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.47539886832237244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146834321","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2979672","display_name":"Closure (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.470541775226593},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C130597682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6961922","display_name":"Transfer-based machine translation","level":4,"score":0.4548840820789337},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.39393407106399536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28490314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189436","display_name":"Speech recognition","level":1,"score":0.3210495114326477},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24687705","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3753284","display_name":"Example-based machine translation","level":3,"score":0.31852471828460693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.24441972374916077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105580179","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188928","display_name":"Messenger RNA","level":3,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55493867","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7094","display_name":"Biochemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34447519","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179522","display_name":"Market economy","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104317684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187","display_name":"Gene","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3675396","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3675396","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S142627899","display_name":"ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology","issn_l":"1049-331X","issn":["1049-331X","1557-7392"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319798","host_organization_name":"Association for Computing Machinery","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319798"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Association for Computing Machinery"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:repository.hkust.edu.hk:1783.1-138035","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://repository.hkust.edu.hk/ir/Record/1783.1-138035","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401796","display_name":"Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","host_organization_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions","score":0.5699999928474426}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":48,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W24471203","https://openalex.org/W2041713059","https://openalex.org/W2053154970","https://openalex.org/W2081580037","https://openalex.org/W2101105183","https://openalex.org/W2104748934","https://openalex.org/W2121167884","https://openalex.org/W2152311128","https://openalex.org/W2341892350","https://openalex.org/W2782311202","https://openalex.org/W2810169973","https://openalex.org/W2886198413","https://openalex.org/W2907879020","https://openalex.org/W2963270153","https://openalex.org/W2963341956","https://openalex.org/W2969499518","https://openalex.org/W2988217457","https://openalex.org/W3001434439","https://openalex.org/W3006259277","https://openalex.org/W3021792233","https://openalex.org/W3035507081","https://openalex.org/W3035671939","https://openalex.org/W3090988182","https://openalex.org/W3091407209","https://openalex.org/W3100869665","https://openalex.org/W3109744225","https://openalex.org/W3128630643","https://openalex.org/W3130880317","https://openalex.org/W3155609600","https://openalex.org/W3163644064","https://openalex.org/W3175557813","https://openalex.org/W3178517081","https://openalex.org/W3194983542","https://openalex.org/W3204737103","https://openalex.org/W4205586222","https://openalex.org/W4206371575","https://openalex.org/W4210497109","https://openalex.org/W4210972988","https://openalex.org/W4241982274","https://openalex.org/W4281707113","https://openalex.org/W4283790944","https://openalex.org/W4284675318","https://openalex.org/W4313563529","https://openalex.org/W4313563818","https://openalex.org/W4361213704","https://openalex.org/W4384302825","https://openalex.org/W4385965454","https://openalex.org/W4388277632"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W193726211","https://openalex.org/W1559710535","https://openalex.org/W2566847733","https://openalex.org/W2010336863","https://openalex.org/W2962780935","https://openalex.org/W3204448004","https://openalex.org/W2532807140","https://openalex.org/W4378619223","https://openalex.org/W2027317339","https://openalex.org/W2378657301"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"With":[0],"the":[1,7,26,39,56,61,80,128,131,159,166,169,173,181,189,192,199,214,228,238,252,260,279],"wide":[2],"application":[3],"of":[4,9,41,130,152,194,269,282],"machine":[5],"translation,":[6],"testing":[8],"Machine":[10],"Translation":[11],"Systems":[12],"(MTSs)":[13],"has":[14],"attracted":[15],"much":[16],"attention.":[17],"Recent":[18],"works":[19,254],"apply":[20],"Metamorphic":[21],"Testing":[22],"(MT)":[23],"to":[24,67,78,126,197,277],"address":[25,127],"oracle":[27],"problem":[28],"in":[29,95,158,172,180,255,271],"MTS":[30,36,133],"testing.":[31],"Existing":[32],"MT":[33,134],"methods":[34,73],"for":[35,184,213],"generally":[37],"follow":[38],"workflow":[40],"input":[42,52,58,76,154,235],"transformation":[43],"and":[44,59,63,84,98,103,110,155,177,209,216,237,262,264],"output":[45,65,100,123,156,175,183],"relation":[46,101],"comparison,":[47],"which":[48],"generates":[49],"a":[50,120,142,150,207],"follow-up":[51,64,182],"sentence":[53],"by":[54,232,258,286],"mutating":[55],"source":[57,62,174],"compares":[60],"translations":[66],"detect":[68],"translation":[69,89,176,200,239,283],"errors,":[70],"respectively.":[71],"These":[72],"use":[74],"various":[75],"transformations":[77,236],"generate":[79],"test":[81,160,229],"case":[82,161],"pairs":[83],"have":[85,93],"successfully":[86],"triggered":[87],"numerous":[88],"errors.":[90,114,201],"However,":[91],"they":[92],"limitations":[94,129],"performing":[96],"fine-grained":[97,208],"rigorous":[99,210],"comparison":[102,124,144,212],"thus":[104,217],"may":[105],"report":[106],"many":[107,112],"false":[108],"alarms":[109],"miss":[111],"true":[113],"In":[115,202],"this":[116,203],"article,":[117],"we":[118,187,205],"propose":[119,138],"word":[121,139,195],"closure-based":[122],"method":[125,226,249],"existing":[132,234,253],"methods.":[135],"We":[136,223],"first":[137],"closure":[140,148,196],"as":[141],"new":[143],"unit,":[145],"where":[146],"each":[147],"includes":[149],"group":[151],"correlated":[153],"words":[157],"pair.":[162],"Word":[163],"closures":[164],"suggest":[165],"linkages":[167],"between":[168],"appropriate":[170],"fragment":[171],"its":[178],"counterpart":[179],"comparison.":[185],"Next,":[186],"compare":[188],"semantics":[190],"on":[191],"level":[193],"identify":[198],"way,":[204],"perform":[206],"semantic":[211],"outputs":[215,240],"realize":[218],"more":[219],"effective":[220],"violation":[221,256],"identification.":[222],"evaluate":[224],"our":[225,248],"with":[227],"cases":[230],"generated":[231],"five":[233],"from":[241],"three":[242],"popular":[243],"MTSs.":[244],"Results":[245],"show":[246],"that":[247],"significantly":[250],"outperforms":[251],"identification":[257],"improving":[259],"precision":[261],"recall":[263],"achieving":[265],"an":[266],"average":[267],"increase":[268,278],"29.9%":[270],"F1":[272,280],"score.":[273],"It":[274],"also":[275],"helps":[276],"score":[281],"error":[284],"localization":[285],"35.9%.":[287]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-08-12T21:12:35.861297","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}