{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4400643163","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3657604.3662042","title":"Supporting Self-Reflection at Scale with Large Language Models: Insights from Randomized Field Experiments in Classrooms","display_name":"Supporting Self-Reflection at Scale with Large Language Models: Insights from Randomized Field Experiments in Classrooms","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-07-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4400643163","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3657604.3662042"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3657604.3662042","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3657604.3662042","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Eleventh ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5059798408","display_name":"Harsh Kumar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2878-3986"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","display_name":"University of Toronto","ror":"https://ror.org/03dbr7087","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Harsh Kumar","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5064227348","display_name":"Ruiwei Xiao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6461-7611"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ruiwei Xiao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027203666","display_name":"Benjamin Lawson","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-8443-3920"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","display_name":"University of Toronto","ror":"https://ror.org/03dbr7087","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Benjamin Lawson","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022204507","display_name":"Ilya Musabirov","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2246-0094"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","display_name":"University of Toronto","ror":"https://ror.org/03dbr7087","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ilya Musabirov","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083931769","display_name":"Jiakai Shi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8755-8984"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","display_name":"University of Toronto","ror":"https://ror.org/03dbr7087","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jiakai Shi","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060253607","display_name":"X. D. Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7302-0589"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","display_name":"University of Toronto","ror":"https://ror.org/03dbr7087","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xinyuan Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102688812","display_name":"Huayin Luo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7292-1560"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","display_name":"University of Toronto","ror":"https://ror.org/03dbr7087","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Huayin Luo","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5069476228","display_name":"Joseph Jay Williams","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9122-5242"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","display_name":"University of Toronto","ror":"https://ror.org/03dbr7087","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Joseph Jay Williams","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5038687622","display_name":"Anna N. Rafferty","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I188497080","display_name":"Carleton College","ror":"https://ror.org/03jep7677","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I188497080"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Anna N. Rafferty","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carleton College, Northfield, MN, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carleton College, Northfield, MN, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I188497080"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060576109","display_name":"John Stamper","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2291-1468"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"John Stamper","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5017029944","display_name":"Michael Liut","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2965-5302"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185261750","display_name":"University of Toronto","ror":"https://ror.org/03dbr7087","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Michael Liut","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":11,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5059798408"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185261750"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":24.5504,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":32,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99748392,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"86","last_page":"97"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10636","display_name":"Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods","score":0.9994000196456909,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10636","display_name":"Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods","score":0.9994000196456909,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14236","display_name":"Educational Tools and Methods","score":0.9853000044822693,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.9793999791145325,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reflection","display_name":"Reflection (computer programming)","score":0.622171938419342},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6024382710456848},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scale","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","score":0.6008923053741455},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/self-reflection","display_name":"Self-reflection","score":0.5661553144454956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/field","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","score":0.5463365912437439},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.1959826946258545},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.10766199231147766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.0999591052532196},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geography","display_name":"Geography","score":0.09733492136001587},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cartography","display_name":"Cartography","score":0.06777390837669373}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C65682993","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1056451","display_name":"Reflection (computer programming)","level":2,"score":0.622171938419342},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6024382710456848},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778755073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10858537","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","level":2,"score":0.6008923053741455},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777906739","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1780478","display_name":"Self-reflection","level":2,"score":0.5661553144454956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9652623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190109","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.5463365912437439},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.1959826946258545},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.10766199231147766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0999591052532196},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.09733492136001587},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58640448","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42515","display_name":"Cartography","level":1,"score":0.06777390837669373},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11171543","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41630","display_name":"Psychoanalysis","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202444582","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q837863","display_name":"Pure mathematics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3657604.3662042","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3657604.3662042","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the Eleventh ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.7799999713897705,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1010792669","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"N00014-21-1- 2576","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320323817","funder_display_name":"Universitas Brawijaya"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5927858796","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"RGPIN-2019-0696","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320323817","funder_display_name":"Universitas Brawijaya"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320323817","display_name":"Universitas Brawijaya","ror":"https://ror.org/01wk3d929"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":34,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1598140581","https://openalex.org/W1969818183","https://openalex.org/W1975115953","https://openalex.org/W1987406369","https://openalex.org/W1995671839","https://openalex.org/W2001564915","https://openalex.org/W2012848762","https://openalex.org/W2027525087","https://openalex.org/W2038821408","https://openalex.org/W2062316474","https://openalex.org/W2069194751","https://openalex.org/W2078988171","https://openalex.org/W2099829710","https://openalex.org/W2101888083","https://openalex.org/W2107429464","https://openalex.org/W2127418831","https://openalex.org/W2582128760","https://openalex.org/W2607870928","https://openalex.org/W2623413988","https://openalex.org/W2810246495","https://openalex.org/W2900823441","https://openalex.org/W2980304518","https://openalex.org/W3029636270","https://openalex.org/W3042284248","https://openalex.org/W3092813858","https://openalex.org/W4243420394","https://openalex.org/W4318257512","https://openalex.org/W4321329751","https://openalex.org/W4327518740","https://openalex.org/W4362584541","https://openalex.org/W4382515993","https://openalex.org/W4384625662","https://openalex.org/W4390690827","https://openalex.org/W6603468762"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391375266","https://openalex.org/W2748952813","https://openalex.org/W2390279801","https://openalex.org/W4206742258","https://openalex.org/W1522713812","https://openalex.org/W2382760611","https://openalex.org/W2384375073","https://openalex.org/W4380686318","https://openalex.org/W2023645350","https://openalex.org/W2064377134"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Self-reflection":[0],"on":[1,135,157,233,240,266],"learning":[2,15,258,302],"experiences":[3,303],"constitutes":[4],"a":[5,82,125,129,136,234],"fundamental":[6],"cognitive":[7],"process,":[8],"essential":[9],"for":[10,291],"consolidating":[11],"knowledge":[12],"and":[13,32,128,161,194,211,218,253,307],"enhancing":[14],"efficacy.":[16],"However,":[17],"traditional":[18],"methods":[19],"to":[20,62,68,100,104,114,122,226,230,275,300],"facilitate":[21,105,171],"reflection":[22,42,116,188,213,252,309],"often":[23,151],"face":[24],"challenges":[25],"in":[26,57,72,124,208,256],"personalization,":[27],"immediacy":[28],"of":[29,35,66,88,93,141,182,196,250,269,288,298],"feedback,":[30],"engagement,":[31],"scalability.":[33],"Integration":[34],"Large":[36],"Language":[37],"Models":[38],"(LLMs)":[39],"into":[40],"the":[41,64,76,86,111,145,149,153,158,174,180,206,209,241,248,267,286,292,296],"process":[43],"could":[44],"mitigate":[45],"these":[46,94,165],"limitations.":[47],"In":[48,75,173],"this":[49],"paper,":[50],"we":[51,178],"conducted":[52],"two":[53,237],"randomized":[54],"field":[55],"experiments":[56],"undergraduate":[58],"computer":[59],"science":[60],"courses":[61],"investigate":[63],"potential":[65,274,297],"LLMs":[67,270,299],"help":[69],"students":[70,80,95,112,207],"engage":[71],"post-lesson":[73],"reflection.":[74,172],"first":[77],"experiment":[78,176],"(N=145),":[79],"completed":[81],"take-home":[83],"assignment":[84],"with":[85,144],"support":[87],"an":[89,101],"LLM":[90,102,146,150],"assistant;":[91],"half":[92],"were":[96,223],"then":[97],"provided":[98],"access":[99],"designed":[103],"self-reflection.":[106,283],"The":[107],"results":[108,246],"indicated":[109],"that":[110,148,205,263],"assigned":[113],"LLM-guided":[115,183,251],"reported":[117],"somewhat":[118],"increased":[119],"self-confidence":[120],"compared":[121],"peers":[123],"no-reflection":[126],"control":[127],"non-significant":[130],"trend":[131],"towards":[132],"higher":[133],"scores":[134,232],"later":[137,239],"assessment.":[138],"Thematic":[139],"analysis":[140],"students'":[142],"interactions":[143],"showed":[147],"affirmed":[152],"student's":[154,159],"understanding,":[155],"expanded":[156],"reflection,":[160],"prompted":[162],"additional":[163],"reflection;":[164],"behaviors":[166],"suggest":[167,204],"ways":[168],"LLM-interaction":[169],"might":[170],"second":[175],"(N=112),":[177],"evaluated":[179],"impact":[181],"self-reflection":[184],"against":[185],"other":[186],"scalable":[187,308],"methods,":[189],"such":[190,281],"as":[191,282],"questionnaire-based":[192,254],"activities":[193,255],"review":[195],"key":[197],"lecture":[198,227],"slides,":[199,228],"after":[200],"assignment.":[201],"Our":[202,260],"findings":[203],"questionnaire":[210],"LLM-based":[212],"groups":[214],"performed":[215],"equally":[216],"well":[217],"better":[219],"than":[220],"those":[221],"who":[222],"only":[224],"exposed":[225],"according":[229],"their":[231,273],"proctored":[235],"exam":[236],"weeks":[238],"same":[242],"subject":[243],"matter.":[244],"These":[245],"underscore":[247],"utility":[249],"improving":[257],"outcomes.":[259],"work":[261],"highlights":[262],"focusing":[264],"solely":[265],"accuracy":[268],"can":[271],"overlook":[272],"enhance":[276,301],"metacognitive":[277],"skills":[278],"through":[279,304],"practices":[280],"We":[284],"discuss":[285],"implications":[287],"our":[289],"research":[290],"learning-at-scale":[293],"community,":[294],"highlighting":[295],"personalized,":[305],"engaging,":[306],"practices.":[310]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":24},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-04-14T08:04:32.555800","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}