{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4398186371","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3605098.3635970","title":"Unsealing the secrets of blockchain consensus: A systematic comparison of the formal security of proof-of-work and proof-of-stake","display_name":"Unsealing the secrets of blockchain consensus: A systematic comparison of the formal security of proof-of-work and proof-of-stake","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-04-08","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4398186371","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3605098.3635970"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3605098.3635970","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3605098.3635970","pdf_url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3605098.3635970","source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 39th ACM/SIGAPP Symposium on Applied Computing","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3605098.3635970","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5076032307","display_name":"Iv\u00e1n Abell\u00e1n \u00c1lvarez","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4670-433X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Iv\u00e1n Abell\u00e1n \u00c1lvarez","raw_affiliation_strings":["Interdisciplinary Centre for Security, Reliability and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Luxembourg"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Interdisciplinary Centre for Security, Reliability and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5063694989","display_name":"Vincent Gramlich","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3070-1433"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210110507","display_name":"Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Information Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01ak24c12","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210110507","https://openalex.org/I4923324"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vincent Gramlich","raw_affiliation_strings":["Branch Business & Information Systems Engineering, Fraunhofer FIT, Germany, Germany"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Branch Business & Information Systems Engineering, Fraunhofer FIT, Germany, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210110507"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5028636384","display_name":"Johannes Sedlmeir","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2631-8749"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Johannes Sedlmeir","raw_affiliation_strings":["Interdisciplinary Centre for Security, Reliability and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Luxembourg"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Interdisciplinary Centre for Security, Reliability and Trust, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5076032307"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":23.6665,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":31,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99507284,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"278","last_page":"287"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10772","display_name":"Distributed systems and fault tolerance","score":0.986299991607666,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13471","display_name":"Cognitive Functions and Memory","score":0.97079998254776,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blockchain","display_name":"Blockchain","score":0.8064477443695068},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/proof-of-work-system","display_name":"Proof-of-work system","score":0.7146368026733398},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/proof-of-concept","display_name":"Proof of concept","score":0.6217508316040039},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6099916100502014},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/formal-proof","display_name":"Formal proof","score":0.5209906697273254},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/proof-theory","display_name":"Proof theory","score":0.5067718625068665},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/work","display_name":"Work (physics)","score":0.4503903090953827},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/proof-assistant","display_name":"Proof assistant","score":0.41865652799606323},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.4145868122577667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.3456941843032837},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematical-proof","display_name":"Mathematical proof","score":0.2657766342163086},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.1550976037979126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.10564577579498291}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779687700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20514253","display_name":"Blockchain","level":2,"score":0.8064477443695068},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123436394","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7249984","display_name":"Proof-of-work system","level":3,"score":0.7146368026733398},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124978682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1201019","display_name":"Proof of concept","level":2,"score":0.6217508316040039},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6099916100502014},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94461902","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2762418","display_name":"Formal proof","level":3,"score":0.5209906697273254},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2318724","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q852732","display_name":"Proof theory","level":3,"score":0.5067718625068665},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18762648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42213","display_name":"Work (physics)","level":2,"score":0.4503903090953827},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203265346","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11387554","display_name":"Proof assistant","level":3,"score":0.41865652799606323},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.4145868122577667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.3456941843032837},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108710211","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11538","display_name":"Mathematical proof","level":2,"score":0.2657766342163086},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.1550976037979126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.10564577579498291},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2524010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8087","display_name":"Geometry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78519656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101333","display_name":"Mechanical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1145/3605098.3635970","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3605098.3635970","pdf_url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3605098.3635970","source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 39th ACM/SIGAPP Symposium on Applied Computing","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:orbilu.uni.lu:10993/59934","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://orbilu.uni.lu/handle/10993/59934","pdf_url":"https://orbilu.uni.lu/bitstream/10993/59934/1/Abellan_et_al_pow_vs_pos_lit_rev_ACM_SAC_DAPP.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401815","display_name":"Open Repository and Bibliography (University of Luxembourg)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","host_organization_name":"University of Luxembourg","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 39th ACM/SIGAPP Symposium on Applied Computing (SAC), \u00c1vila, Spain [ES], From 7 to 12 April 2024","raw_type":"peer reviewed"},{"id":"pmh:oai:null:publica/475525","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://publica.fraunhofer.de/handle/publica/475525","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400318","display_name":"Fraunhofer-Publica (Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4923324","host_organization_name":"Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4923324"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"conference paper"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1145/3605098.3635970","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1145/3605098.3635970","pdf_url":"https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3605098.3635970","source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the 39th ACM/SIGAPP Symposium on Applied Computing","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/7","display_name":"Affordable and clean energy","score":0.9100000262260437}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2101351024","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"14783405","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321038","funder_display_name":"Fonds National de la Recherche Luxembourg"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2588960202","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"CC BY 4.0","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321038","funder_display_name":"Fonds National de la Recherche Luxembourg"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4613589738","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"16326754","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321038","funder_display_name":"Fonds National de la Recherche Luxembourg"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5107430903","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"13342933","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321038","funder_display_name":"Fonds National de la Recherche Luxembourg"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6110506955","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"20-3066-2-6-14","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320331012","funder_display_name":"Bayerische Staatsministerium f\u00fcr Wirtschaft, Landesentwicklung und Energie"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321038","display_name":"Fonds National de la Recherche Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/039z13y21"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320331012","display_name":"Bayerische Staatsministerium f\u00fcr Wirtschaft, Landesentwicklung und Energie","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4398186371.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4398186371.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":53,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1520914943","https://openalex.org/W1562226375","https://openalex.org/W1984478483","https://openalex.org/W2003214215","https://openalex.org/W2034791526","https://openalex.org/W2035362408","https://openalex.org/W2054584570","https://openalex.org/W2095135670","https://openalex.org/W2103863878","https://openalex.org/W2106956101","https://openalex.org/W2118328848","https://openalex.org/W2132334337","https://openalex.org/W2152465173","https://openalex.org/W2166656159","https://openalex.org/W2534313446","https://openalex.org/W2536325433","https://openalex.org/W2604903677","https://openalex.org/W2739845435","https://openalex.org/W2775476012","https://openalex.org/W2810034004","https://openalex.org/W2916931547","https://openalex.org/W2922401517","https://openalex.org/W2926987861","https://openalex.org/W2964159515","https://openalex.org/W2965678227","https://openalex.org/W2976709195","https://openalex.org/W2993997555","https://openalex.org/W3009872677","https://openalex.org/W3030538593","https://openalex.org/W3036397807","https://openalex.org/W3046351815","https://openalex.org/W3054925353","https://openalex.org/W3090500064","https://openalex.org/W3098532907","https://openalex.org/W3098607179","https://openalex.org/W3123713678","https://openalex.org/W3125624153","https://openalex.org/W3137220996","https://openalex.org/W3140966608","https://openalex.org/W3143489046","https://openalex.org/W3211992711","https://openalex.org/W3212398953","https://openalex.org/W3213723695","https://openalex.org/W4206384649","https://openalex.org/W4213441783","https://openalex.org/W4225112951","https://openalex.org/W4282974641","https://openalex.org/W4297883135","https://openalex.org/W4298285296","https://openalex.org/W4307837975","https://openalex.org/W4319993496","https://openalex.org/W4321612667","https://openalex.org/W4385654194"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4312475206","https://openalex.org/W3213431194","https://openalex.org/W2491370528","https://openalex.org/W1854197585","https://openalex.org/W3202579655","https://openalex.org/W2408514828","https://openalex.org/W2293624543","https://openalex.org/W2978888779","https://openalex.org/W2755232768","https://openalex.org/W1561664087"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"With":[0],"the":[1,16,23,42,51,64,74,90,93,127,132,158,163],"increasing":[2],"adoption":[3],"of":[4,12,18,25,53,58,78,96,107,118,136],"decentralized":[5],"information":[6],"systems":[7],"based":[8],"on":[9,44,73,104],"a":[10,115,143],"variety":[11],"permissionless":[13],"blockchain":[14],"networks,":[15],"choice":[17],"consensus":[19,38,119,156],"mechanism":[20,46],"is":[21,47],"at":[22],"core":[24],"many":[26],"controversial":[27],"discussions.":[28],"Ethereum's":[29],"recent":[30],"transition":[31],"from":[32],"proof-of-work":[33],"(PoW)":[34],"to":[35],"proof-of-stake":[36],"(PoS)-based":[37],"has":[39,69,85,102],"further":[40],"fueled":[41],"debate":[43],"which":[45],"more":[48,177],"favorable.":[49],"While":[50],"aspects":[52,77],"energy":[54],"consumption":[55],"and":[56,98,125,129,138,182],"degree":[57],"(de-)centralization":[59],"are":[60],"often":[61],"emphasized":[62],"in":[63],"public":[65],"discourse,":[66],"seminal":[67],"research":[68,149],"also":[70],"shed":[71],"light":[72],"formal":[75,133,165],"security":[76,94,134,166],"both":[79],"approaches":[80],"individually.":[81],"However,":[82],"related":[83],"work":[84],"not":[86],"yet":[87],"comprehensively":[88],"structured":[89],"knowledge":[91],"about":[92],"properties":[95,135],"PoW":[97],"PoS.":[99],"Rather,":[100],"it":[101],"focused":[103],"in-depth":[105],"analyses":[106],"specific":[108],"protocols":[109],"or":[110],"high-level":[111],"comparative":[112],"reviews":[113],"covering":[114],"broad":[116],"range":[117],"mechanisms.":[120],"To":[121],"fill":[122],"this":[123],"gap":[124],"unravel":[126],"commonalities":[128],"discrepancies":[130],"between":[131,180],"PoW-":[137],"PoS-based":[139],"consensus,":[140],"we":[141],"conduct":[142],"systematic":[144],"literature":[145],"review":[146],"over":[147],"26":[148],"articles.":[150],"Our":[151],"findings":[152],"indicate":[153],"that":[154],"PoW-based":[155],"with":[157],"longest":[159],"chain":[160],"rule":[161],"provides":[162],"strongest":[164],"guarantees.":[167],"Nonetheless,":[168],"PoS":[169],"can":[170],"achieve":[171],"similar":[172],"guarantees":[173],"when":[174],"addressing":[175],"its":[176],"pronounced":[178],"tradeoff":[179],"safety":[181],"liveness":[183],"through":[184],"hybrid":[185],"approaches.":[186]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":18},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":8}],"updated_date":"2026-04-10T15:06:20.359241","created_date":"2024-05-22T00:00:00"}